1. Neural transmission

2. Beauty in the nervous system?

8. The Neuron is the Fundamental “working unit” of the nervous system

9. In most respects the neuron is like other cells of our body

10. But is different in that it can produce electrical impulses near its cell body region

11. That move down the axon and lead to the release of specialized neurochemicals (neurotransmitter substances) at the Synapse

12. Synaptic release of Neurotransmitter substances may in turn affect “postsynaptic” neurons; mostly in the dendritic regions

13. Historical perspective:The “Reticular Theory
The nervous system was thought to be a continuous network of fibers…no individual cells

14. The “Golgi stain” helped us to visualize individual neurons

15. And led to: The Neuron Theory

16. There are many types of neurons:Some common types of neurons

17. This is our “Model Neuron”

18. The Neuron is also different in that the axon is typically myelinated by “glial cells”

19. The Shwann cell

20. Oligodendrocytes ( a member of the glia family)

21. There are many types of glial cells: all are thought to primarily provide support functions

22. The Neuronal communication process can be thought of as an “electro-chemical” event
How is the electric signal produced?
How is the Chemical event produced?

23. The Neuron is Like a little battery

24. We use an Oscilloscope to visualize electric charge

27. The resting Membrane potential (RMP)

28. Ions are responsible for the charge of a neuron
Cations +
Anions-

29. At Rest, ionic substances have different concentrations inside vs
At Rest, ionic substances have different concentrations inside vs. outside the neural membrane

30. Passive vs Dynamic neural responses

32. Hyperpolarization and Depolarization
Hyperpolarization- makes the RMP more negative
Depolarization-makes the RMP more positive

35. What is special about “threshold?”

36. The forces of Diffusion: Concentration Gradients

37. The forces of Diffusion across a semi-permeable membrane

38. Diffusion also occurs across electrostatic gradients

39. The neural membrane is a semi-permeable membrane

40. The Neurons membrane separates the different ions

41. The membrane controls diffusion

42. By opening or closing Ion channels

44. If ion channels are open; diffusion across concentration and electrostatic gradients will occur

47. Triggering the release of RMP energy
How does threshold depolarization trigger a dynamic response?
Changes membrane permeability
Activating/opening ion channels
-”Voltage-gated” Na+ ion channels
Open only when a critical level of depol occurs
Other ion channels then become involved

49. Refractory period

51. Once triggered, the AP is all or none, and “one-way.”

52. Saltatory Propagation

56. Myelenation and size affect speed

58. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, potentially debilitating disease that affects the central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. Doctors and researchers think the illness is probably an autoimmune disease, which means that your immune system attacks part of your body as if it's a foreign substance.

60. Multiple Sclerosis is an incurable debilitating disease of the central nervous system. MS affects young to middle aged adults.
Approximately 4 million worldwide have this disease. 400,000 of these people live in the United States. It can affect anyone, and can strike at anytime without warning. Once you develop this disease it will be with you for the remainder of your life, as there is no cure or known cause.
Multiple Sclerosis is a degeneration of the myelin sheath surrounding nerves in the brain and spinal cord. The part of the body effected by this disease is dependant on the nerves that are damaged.
Typical symptoms may include one or more of the following: loss of muscle coordination, unsteadiness, fatigue, speech difficulties, vision degradation, loss of bowel and bladder control and numbness in the extremities.
Many people with MS are unable to walk without assistance, requiring wither canes, walkers or wheelchairs. A percentage are bed ridden and unable to care for themselves in any way, required around the clock care.

62. Resetting the RMP

64. Action Potential at the Terminals

65. The Synapse: PRESYNAPTIC and POSTSYNAPTIC processes

66. PRESYNAPTIC Exocytosis

68. Excocytosis involves microtubules

69. Exocytosis Voltage-dependent Ca++ channels Ca++ influx
Vesicular migration
Vesiclular fusion
Release of NTs into synapse

70. NTs release into synapse

71. Classical NTs

72. NTs Terminology Post synaptic effects
Acetylcholine/ACH Cholinergic +/-
Serotonin/5-HT serotonergic +/-
GABA (gamma-amino-butyric acid) GABA-ergic -
Glutamate/Glu Glutamatergic +
Norpinephrine /NE Adrenergic +/-
Dopamine /DA Dopaminergic +/-
Enkephalin/Endorphin +/-
Many other neurotransmitters are derived from precursor proteins, the so-called peptide neurotransmitters. As many as 50 different peptides have been shown to exert their effects on neural cell function.

74. POSTSYNAPTIC PROCESSES: NT receptors

75. EFFECTS OF NTs? Many factors, but all lead to:
IPSPs: inhibiitory post synaptic potentials
Hyperpolarization
Decrease probability of action potential
EPSPs: excitatory post synaptic potentials
Depolarization
Increase probability of action potential

78. Neural Integration

79. Neural Integration occurs mainly at axon hillock and can occur spatially or temporally

81. Axon Hillock

83. EFFECTS OF NTs?
EPSP or IPSP
Depends on receptor subtype

84. Most General division of NT receptors- IONOTROPIC RECEPTORS

85. Metabotropic Receptors

87. Effects depend on receptor subtype

88. And
circuits

89. NT-receptor interactions must stop! Enzymatic degradation

91. Eg…

92. Effects of Nerve gas exposure
Neuromuscular Effects
Autonomic Nervous System Effects
Central Nervous System Effects
Twitching
Weakness
Paralysis
Respiratory failure
Reduced Vision
Small pupil size
Drooling
Sweating
Diarrhea
Nausea
Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Headache
Convulsions
Coma
Respiratory arrest
Confusion
Slurred speech
Depression
Respiratory depression

93. Reuptake

94. Here are the SSRIs approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) specifically to treat depression, with their generic, or chemical, names followed by available brand names in parentheses:
Citalopram (Celexa)
Escitalopram (Lexapro)
Fluoxetine (Prozac, Prozac Weekly)
Paroxetine (Paxil, Paxil CR, Pexeva)
Sertraline (Zoloft)
These medications may also be used to treat conditions other than depression.
Side effects of SSRIs
All SSRIs have the same general mechanism of action and side effects. However, individual SSRIs have some different pharmacological characteristics. That means you may respond differently to certain SSRIs or have different side effects with different SSRIs.

95. SSRI possible side-effects
Side effects of SSRIs include:
Nausea
Sexual dysfunction, including reduced desire or orgasm difficulties
Dry mouth
Headache
Diarrhea
Nervousness
Rash
Agitation
Restlessness
Increased sweating
Weight gain
Drowsiness
Insomnia

96. Drugs may affect neural transmission in different ways