1. Production and Cost Analysis I
Chapter 9

2. Laugher Curve
A woman hears from her doctor that she has only half a year to live.
The doctor advises her to marry an economist and to move to South Dakota.

3. Laugher Curve “Will this cure my illness?” she asked.
No, but the half year will seem pretty long.”

4. Introduction
In the supply process, people first offer their factors of production to the market.
Then the factors are transformed by firms into goods that consumers want.
Production is the name given to that transformation of factors into goods.

5. The Role of the Firm
The firm is an economic institution that transforms factors of production into consumer goods – it:
Organizes factors of production.
Produces goods and services.
Sells produced goods and services.

6. The Role of the Firm A virtual firm only organizes production.
Virtual firms subcontract out all work.
More and more of the organizational structure of business is being separated from the business.

7. The Firm and the Market
Firms operate within the market, while at the same time —
Firms replace the market with command and control.

8. The Firm and the Market How an economy operates depends on:
Transaction costs – costs of undertaking trades through the market, and
The rent or command over resources that organizers can appropriate to themselves by organizing the market in a certain way.

9. The Firm and the Market
Firms are the production organizations that translate factors of production into consumer goods.

10. Profit = total revenue – total cost
Firms Maximize Profit
Profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost.
Profit = total revenue – total cost

11. Firms Maximize Profit
Economists and accountants measure profit differently.
Accountants focus on explicit costs and revenue.
Economist focus on both explicit and implicit costs and revenue.

12. Firms Maximize Profit
For an economist, total cost is explicit payments to factors of production plus the opportunity cost of the factors provided by the owners of the firm.

13. Firms Maximize Profit
Economists define total revenue as the amount a firm receives for selling its good or service plus any increase in the value of the assets owned by firms.

14. Firms Maximize Profit Economic profit =
For economists:
Economic profit =
(explicit and implicit revenue)
– (explicit and implicit cost)

15. The Production Process
The production process can be divided into the long run and the short run.

16. The Long Run and the Short Run
A long-run decision is a decision in which the firm can choose among all possible production techniques.

17. The Long Run and the Short Run
A short-run decision is one in which the firm is constrained in regard to what production decision it can make.

18. The Long Run and the Short Run
The terms long run and short run do not necessarily refer to specific periods of time.
They refer to the degree of flexibility the firm has in changing the level of output.

19. The Long Run and the Short Run
In the long run, all inputs are variable.
In the short run, some inputs are fixed.

20. Production Tables and Production Functions
A production table shows the output resulting from various combinations of factors of production or inputs.

21. Production Tables and Production Functions
Marginal product is the additional output that will be forthcoming from an additional worker, other inputs remaining constant.

22. Production Tables and Production Functions
Average product is calculated by dividing total output by the quantity of the output.

23. Production Tables and Production Functions
Production function – a curve that describes the relationship between the inputs (factors of production) and outputs.

24. Production Tables and Production Functions
The production function tells the maximum amount of output that can be derived from a given number of inputs.

25. A Production Table Number of workers Total output Marginal product
Average product 4 6 7 5 3 1 2 8 9 10
5.7
5.8
5.6
5.2
4.6
4.0
3.3
2.5 — 17 23 28 31 32 30 25

26. A Production Function 32 7 30 28 26 6 24 22 TP 5 20 18 4 Output 16 14
Output per worker 3 12 10 2 8 AP 6 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of workers
Number of workers MP
(a) Total product
(b) Marginal and average product

27. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Both marginal and average productivities initially increase, but eventually they both decrease.

28. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
This means that initially the production function exhibits increasing marginal productivity.
Then it exhibits diminishing marginal productivity.
Finally, it exhibits negative marginal productivity.

29. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
The most relevant part of the production function is that part exhibiting diminishing marginal productivity.

30. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Law of diminishing marginal productivity – as more and more of a variable input is added to an existing fixed input, after some point the additional output one gets from the additional input will fall.

31. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Number of workers
Total output
Marginal product
Average product
Increasing marginal returns
Diminishing marginal returns
Diminishing absolute returns 4 6 7 5 3 1 2 8 9 10
5.7
5.8
5.6
5.2
4.6
4.0
3.3
2.5 — 17 23 28 31 32 30 25

32. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Diminishing marginal returns
Diminishing absolute returns
Diminishing marginal returns
Diminishing absolute returns 32 7 30 28 26 6 24 22 TP 5 20
Increasing marginal returns 18 4
Output 16 14
Output per worker 3 12 10 2 8 AP 6 4 1 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of workers
Number of workers MP
(a) Total product
(b) Marginal and average product

33. The Law of Diminishing Marginal Productivity
This law is also called the flower pot law.
If it did not hold true, the world’s entire food supply could be grown in a single flower pot.

34. The Costs of Production
There are many different types of costs.
Invariably, firms believe costs are too high and try to lower them.

35. Fixed Costs, Variable Costs, and Total Costs
Fixed costs are those that are spent and cannot be changed in the period of time under consideration.
In the long run there are no fixed costs since all costs are variable.
In the short run, a number of costs will be fixed.

36. Fixed Costs, Variable Costs, and Total Costs
Workers represent variable costs – those that change as output changes.

37. Fixed Costs, Variable Costs, and Total Costs
The sum of the variable and fixed costs are total costs.
TC = FC + VC

38. Average Costs
Much of the firm’s discussion is of average cost.

39. Average Costs ATC = TC/Q
Average total cost (often called average cost) equals total cost divided by the quantity produced.
ATC = TC/Q

40. Average Costs AFC = FC/Q
Average fixed cost equals fixed cost divided by quantity produced.
AFC = FC/Q

41. Average Costs AVC = VC/Q
Average variable cost equals variable cost divided by quantity produced.
AVC = VC/Q

42. Average Costs ATC = AFC + AVC
Average total cost can also be thought of as the sum of average fixed cost and average variable cost.
ATC = AFC + AVC

43. Marginal Cost
Marginal cost is the increase (decrease) in total cost of increasing (or decreasing) the level of output by one unit.
In deciding how many units to produce, the most important variable is marginal cost.

45. Graphing Cost Curves
To gain a greater understanding of these concepts, it is a good idea to draw a graph.
Quantity is put on the horizontal axis and a dollar measure of various costs on the vertical axis.

46. Total Cost Curves
The total variable cost curve has the same shape as the total cost curve—increasing output increases variable cost.

47. Total Cost Curves TC $400 VC 350 300 TC = (VC + FC) 250 200 L 150 O
100 M 50 FC 2 4 6 8 10 20 30
Quantity of earrings

48. Average and Marginal Cost Curves
The marginal cost curve goes through the minimum point of the average total cost curve and average variable cost curve.
Each of these curves is U-shaped.

49. Average and Marginal Cost Curves
The average fixed cost curve slopes down continuously.

50. Downward-Sloping Shape of the Average Fixed Cost Curve
The average fixed cost curve looks like a child’s slide – it starts out with a steep decline, then it becomes flatter and flatter.
It tells us that as output increases, the same fixed cost can be spread out over a wider range of output.

51. The U Shape of the Average and Marginal Cost Curves
When output is increased in the short-run, it can only be done by increasing the variable input.

52. The U Shape of the Average and Marginal Cost Curves
The law of diminishing marginal productivity sets in as more and more of a variable input is added to a fixed input.
Marginal and average productivities fall and marginal costs rise.

53. The U Shape of the Average and Marginal Cost Curves
And when average productivity of the variable input falls, average variable cost rise.

54. The U Shape of the Average and Marginal Cost Curves
The average total cost curve is the vertical summation of the average fixed cost curve and the average variable cost curve.

55. The U Shape of the Average and Marginal Cost Curves
If the firm increased output enormously, the average variable cost curve and the average total cost curve would almost meet.
The firm’s eye is focused on average total cost—it wants to keep it low.

56. Per Unit Output Cost Curves
$30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Quantity of earrings 30 32
ATC MC
AFC
AVC

57. The Relationship Between Productivity and Costs
The shapes of the cost curves are mirror-image reflections of the shapes of the corresponding productivity curves.

58. The Relationship Between Productivity and Costs
When one is increasing, the other is decreasing.
When one is at a maximum, the other is at a minimum.

59. The Relationship Between Productivity and Costs
$18 9 16 MC 8 14 7 12
AVC 6 A 10 5
Costs per unit
Productivity of workers at this output 8 4
AP of workers 6 3 4 2 2 1
MP of workers 4 8 12 16 20 24
Output 4 8 12 16 20 24
Output

60. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
The marginal cost and average cost curves are related.
When marginal cost exceeds average cost, average cost must be rising.
When marginal cost is less than average cost, average cost must be falling.

61. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
Marginal cost curves always intersect average cost curves at the minimum of the average cost curve.

62. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
The position of the marginal cost relative to average total cost tells us whether average total cost is rising or falling.

63. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
To summarize:
If MC > ATC, then ATC is rising.
If MC = ATC, then ATC is at its low point.
If MC < ATC, then ATC is falling.

64. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
Marginal and average total cost reflect a general relationship that also holds for marginal cost and average variable cost.
If MC > AVC, then AVC is rising.
If MC = AVC, then AVC is at its low point.
If MC < AVC, then AVC is falling.

65. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
As long as average variable cost does not rise by more than average fixed cost falls, average total cost will fall when marginal cost is above average variable cost,

66. Relationship Between Marginal and Average Costs
$90
Area B
AVC
ATC MC MC
ATC
AVC 80
Area A
Area C 70 60 50 40
Costs per unit 30 Q1 B 20 Q0 A 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Quantity

67. Production and Cost Analysis I
End of Chapter 9