1. Basic Organization of the Nervous System
Dr. G.R. Leichnetz

2. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the: brain and spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of:
12 pairs of cranial nerves, pairs of spinal nerves, nerve plexuses, ganglia, and emergent peripheral nerves

3. Neural tissue of the CNS and PNS contains two general categories of cells: neurons and supportive cells.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of about % neurons and 90% neuroglia (supportive cells).
The CNS contains approximately 10 billion neurons.
While the PNS contains all three morphological types of neurons (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar), the CNS only contains multipolar neurons. These multipolar neurons, however, are of a wide variety of size and shape.
The neuroglia (supportive cells) of the CNS are astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.
The supportive cells of the PNS are Schwann cells and satellite cells.

4. Central Nervous System vs. Peripheral Nervous System

5. Gray Matter vs. White Matter

6. Gray matter contains cell bodies of neurons.
Typical Neuron
Gray matter contains cell bodies of neurons.
CNS gray matter is organized in two ways:
nucleus (cluster) or cortex (layers).
Note: A ganglion is a cluster of neurons in the PNS.
White matter contains myelinated axons.
Both gray matter and white matter also contain neuroglia (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes).
Cell Body
Myelinated axon
From: Noback & Demarest, The Human Nervous System

7. Cytoarchitecture of the Brain
Nuclei contain the cell bodies of neurons
Nissl-stained (cresyl-violet) cross section of medulla (see “nuclei,” containing cell bodies, stained darker purple)

8. Myeloarchitecture of the Brain
Tracts contain myelinated axons of neurons
Compare to C.V.-stained section
Myelin-stained section of medulla (see tracts, containing myelinated axons, stained darker black; nuclei are pale)

9. A “nucleus” is a cluster of cell bodies of neurons in the CNS.
Myelin-stained section through the midbrain, showing the trochlear nucleus (pale round structure just above small dark tract)
The neuron cell bodies which make up the trochlear nucleus can be seen by injecting HRP into its target muscle (superior oblique muscle of the eye). The enzyme is retrogradely transported back to parent cell body.
The trochlear nucleus seen here contains the cell bodies of many multipolar motor neurons.
Trochlear nucleus
Darkfield photomicrograph showing HRP-containing cell bodies of neurons

10. A “cortex” is laminated gray matter.
The surface of the cerebrum is covered with gray matter, the cerebral cortex, which contains layers of neuronal cell bodies. The cerebrum and cerebellum each have a cortex.
In a coronal section of the brain, the laminated gray matter (cerebral cortex) covers the surface of the cerebrum
(Note: subcortical nuclei- black arrows).
Cortex
Nuclei

11. Cresyl-violet stained section of the cerebral cortex.
In a “cortex” the neurons are in layers on the surface of the cerebrum.
The cerebral cortex has six cellular layers.
CORTEX
Layer III Pyramidal neurons
Subcortical white matter

12. Brain Development:
Basic Neuroembryology

13. The entire CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube.
Neural ectoderm on the dorsal aspect of the developing embyro gives rise to neural groove, neural folds, and then fuses to form the neural tube.
The neural crest pinches off dorsolateral to the neural tube, and gives rise to neural structures in the PNS.

14. Neural Tube: gives rise to CNS Neural Crest: gives rise to PNS
Both are “neural ectoderm” and contain primordial cells which give rise to neurons and supportive elements (ie. neuroglia in CNS; Schwann cells & satellite cells in PNS)

15. Rhombencephalon
Mesencephalon
Prosencephalon
Mesencephalon
Diencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Telencephalon
The rostral end of the neural tube undergoes cephalization (developing brain) giving rise to three primary brain vesicles (prosen-, mesen- and rhomben- cephalon); then five secondary vesicles (telen-, dien-, mesen-, meten-, myelen- cephalon).

16. Cowan

17. The three primary brain vesicles (prosen-, mesen-, and rhomben-cephalon) differentiate into five secondary brain vesicles (telen-, dien-, mesen-, meten-, myelen-cephalon).

18. The terms for the five embryonic secondary brain vesicles are used in the adult for the five subdivisions of the brain.
Five subdivisions of adult brain: Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon
(Metencephalon)
(Mesencephalon)
(Myelencephalon)

19. Brain Development:
Differentiation of the Neural Tube

20. The mantle layer of the neural tube (presumptine gray matter) differentiates into neuroblasts (neurons) and glioblasts (neuroglia). The marginal layer (presumptive white matter) contains processes of developing neurons. The ependymal layer, which is a germinal layer in the embryonic neural tube, lines the neurocoel (ventricles).
Mantle layer
Ependymal layer
Neuroblasts that give rise to neurons do not undergo mitosis
PNS
The neural tube has three layers.
Marginal layer
CNS
Glioblasts give rise to neuroglia which retain the capacity to divide throughout life
From: Noback & Demarest, The Human Nervous System

21. Derivatives of Neural Tube vs. Neural Crest

22. Differentiation of Neural Tube Into Spinal Cord
The mantle layer of the neural tube (presumptive gray matter) gives rise to alar and basal plates, separated by the sulcus limitans.
The alar plate differentiates into sensory nuclei of the CNS (dorsal horn of the spinal cord gray); the basal plate into motor nuclei (ventral horn of spinal gray).

23. Differentiation of Neural Tube Into Brainstem (Medulla)
At the level of the developing medulla, the alar plate of the neural tube (which gives rise to sensory nuclei) is displaced laterally, separated from the basal plate (motor nuclei) by the sulcus limitans.

24. Further differentiation of the alar and basal plates, dividing into cell columns that ultimately break up into sensory and motor nuclei.
Cell columns in developing medulla

25. The longitudinal cell columns (derived from alar and basal plates) break up into sensory and motor nuclei, corresponding to functional components of cranial nerves (sensory: GSA, GVA, SSA, SVA; motor: GSE, GVE, SVE).

26. Dorsal view of the adult brainstem, showing location of sensory (blue) and motor (red) nuclei, which are derived from sensory and motor cell columns. The longitudinal cell columns break up into separate nuclei.
Motor nuclei derived from cell columns that originated from basal plate
Sensory nuclei derived from cell columns that originated from alar plate
Dorsal view of brainstem with cerebellum removed
The sulcus limitans remains as a landmark in the floor of the fourth ventricle, separating motor (medial) and sensory (lateral) nuclei.

27. Basic LM Neurohistology:
Neurons

28. Morphological Classification of Neurons
Unipolar- General sensory- found in cranial and dorsal root ganglia (PNS)
Bipolar- Special sensory- found in cochlear & vestibular ganglia, olfactory epithelium, and retina (PNS)
Multipolar- All CNS neurons are multipolar.
Multipolar neurons in the PNS are found in autonomic ganglia

29. Dorsal root ganglion containing (pseudo-) unipolar neurons
Dorsal root ganglia and cranial sensory ganglia contain unipolar neuron cell bodies.
Origin of single process
Unipolar neurons in the dorsal root ganglion (derived from neural crest) are associated with general sensation (eg. pain, temp., touch, and visceral sense). The small nuclei between neuronal cell bodies are satellite cells and fibroblasts.
Unipolar neuron cell body

30. Bipolar neurons are found in ganglia associated with special senses (eg. cochlear & vestibular ganglia) The retina also contains bipolar neurons.
Bipolar neuron cell body
Central process
Peripheral process

31. Multipolar motor neurons of the ventral horn of the spinal cord stained with a silver stain.
Neuron cell body
Origin of axon (axon hillock)
Neuron cell body
Neuron cell body
Dendrites
Origin of axon (axon hillock)
Motor neurons of the ventral horn of the spinal cord stained with cresyl violet or H & E

32. Pyramidal Neurons of the Cerebral Cortex- are multipolar
Cresyl Violet (Nissl) Stain
Oil 100 X
Apical dendrite
Silver Stain
Basal dendrites
H & E Stain
Axon
Oil 100 X

33. Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex are multipolar neurons.
Dendritic arborization
H & E
Primary dendrite
Silver Stain

34. Basic LM Neurohistology:
Neuroglia

35. Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System: Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia
Neuron
Astrocyte
Haines

36. Neuroglia support the function of neurons in the CNS
Astrocyte
Astrocytes:
1. Carry nutrients from capillaries to neurons
2. Maintain optimal ionic conditions around neurons (remove excess neurotransmitter, ions)
3. Neural development- axon guidance, enhance synapse formation
4. Enhance synaptic transmission (uptake calcium, release ATP)
Oligodendrocytes: myelination of CNS axons
Oligodendrocyte
Astrocyte
From: Noback & Demarest, The Human Nervous System

37. Protoplasmic astrocytes are found in gray matter.
Pyramidal neuron

38. Fibrous astrocytes are found in CNS white matter.

39. Astrocytes have long processes that extend to brain capillaries, ending in perivascular end feet.
Capillary
Astrocyte
Astrocyte
Capillary
Astrocyte
Capillary

40. Blood-Brain Barrier
Selective permeability of the capillary endothelium, excludes certain substances.
In the strictest sense, the blood-brain barrier is formed by the tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells.
However, some people refer to the blood-brain barrier more inclusively as including the endothelium, basal lamina, and astrocytic end feet.

41. Myelination of CNS and PNS Axons
CNS axons are myelinated by oligodendocytes
PNS axons are myelinated by Schwann cells
Oligodendrocytes
CNS
PNS
Schwann cells
Oligodendrocytes can myelinate as many as 50 internodal segments, whereas Schwann cell myelinate only 1 internode.