1. 11b
Money and Inflation

2. General Information
24.10.
Introduction; Transformation Curve, Opportunity Cost
Mankiw ch.1,2
31.10.
Markets: Demand and Supply
Ch. 4
7.11.
Elasticities
Ch. 5
14.11.
Costs, Production Function
Ch. 13
21.11.
Markets with perfect competiton
Ch. 7, 14
28.11.
Taxation
Ch. 8
5.12.
International Trade
Ch. 9
12.12.
Imperfect competition: Monopoly, and Oligoploy
Ch. 15, 16
19.12.
Public Goods, Externalities
Ch. 10,11
9.1.
National Accounting, Gross Domestic Product, Growth
Ch. 23, 25
16.1.
Money and Inflation
Ch. 24, 29, 30
23.1.
Business Cycles
Ch. 33, 34
30.1.
Open Economy Macro
Ch. 31

3. The Classical Dichotomy and Monetary Neutrality
According to Hume and others, real economic variables do not change with changes in the money supply.
According to the classical dichotomy, different forces influence real and nominal variables.
Changes in the money supply affect nominal variables but not real variables.
The irrelevance of monetary changes for real variables is called monetary neutrality.

4. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
The velocity of money refers to the speed at which the typical dollar bill travels around the economy from wallet to wallet.
V = (P  Y)/M
Where: V = velocity Y = quantity of output P = price level M = quantity of money
(US)
(euro area)
(CH)

5. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
Rewriting the equation gives the quantity equation:
M  V = P  Y
The quantity equation relates the quantity of money (M) to the nominal value of output (P  Y).

6. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
The quantity equation shows that an increase in the quantity of money in an economy must be reflected in one of three other variables:
the price level must rise,
the quantity of output must rise, or
the velocity of money must fall.

7. International data on inflation and money growth

8. U.S. data on inflation and money growth

9. Velocity and the Quantity Equation
The Equilibrium Price Level, Inflation Rate, and the Quantity Theory of Money
The velocity of money is relatively stable over time.
When the SNB changes the quantity of money, it causes proportionate changes in the nominal value of output (P  Y).
Because money is neutral, money does not affect output.

10. THE COSTS OF INFLATION A Fall in Purchasing Power?
Inflation does not in itself reduce people’s real purchasing power.
The costs of inflation
Shoeleather costs
Menu costs
Relative price variability
Tax distortions
Confusion and inconvenience
Arbitrary redistribution of wealth

11. 12
Business Cycles

12. Short-Run Economic Fluctuations
Economic activity fluctuates from year to year.
In most years production of goods and services rises.
On average over the past 50 years, production in the U.S. economy has grown by about 3 percent per year.
In some years normal growth does not occur, causing a recession.

13. THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
Economic fluctuations are irregular and unpredictable.
Fluctuations in the economy are often called the business cycle.
Most macroeconomic variables fluctuate together.
As output falls, unemployment rises.

14. Swiss GDP per capita (in 2002 US$, PPP)
Quelle: GGDC, eigene Berechnungen
Konvergenz-Hypothese.
The oil price increase resulted in a rise in unemployment. Lacking unemployment insurance, foreign workers returned to their home countries, or they had to leave because their residence and work permits were not prolonged. As a result, the resident population fell by nearly 150,000 – or 2.2% from 1974 to 1977.

15. Swiss GDP and KOF-Barometer
Y-to-Y in %
BFS: SNA 09/2006, Quartalisation: seco -1 1 2 3 4 5
-0.6
0.0
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
KOF-Barometer
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007

16. THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
Most macroeconomic variables fluctuate together.
Most macroeconomic variables that measure some type of income or production fluctuate closely together.
Although many macroeconomic variables fluctuate together, they fluctuate by different amounts.

17. BFS: SNA 09/2006, Quartalisation: seco
Swiss exports:
Y-to-Y in %
Billion. Fr.
(Quarter)
BFS: SNA 09/2006, Quartalisation: seco
KOF-Forecast 10/2006 -8 -4 4 8 12 16 40 44 48 52 56 60 64
7.0%
2.7%
3.3%
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

18. THREE KEY FACTS ABOUT ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
As output falls, unemployment rises.
Changes in real GDP are inversely related to changes in the unemployment rate.
During times of recession, unemployment rises substantially.

19. Employment vs. GDP (in Switzerland)
2.0
1.0
Employment
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Real GDP growth (2-years average)
Quelle: BFS und KOF

20. EXPLAINING SHORT-RUN ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
How the Short Run Differs from the Long Run
Most economists believe that classical theory describes the world in the long run but not in the short run.
Changes in the money supply affect nominal variables but not real variables in the long run.
The assumption of monetary neutrality is not appropriate when studying year-to-year changes in the economy.

21. The Basic Model of Economic Fluctuations
Two variables are used to develop a model to analyze the short-run fluctuations.
The economy’s output of goods and services measured by real GDP.
The overall price level measured by the CPI or the GDP deflator.

22. The Basic Model of Economic Fluctuations
The Basic Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply
Economist use the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend.

23. The Basic Model of Economic Fluctuations
The Basic Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply
The aggregate-demand curve shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price level.

24. The Basic Model of Economic Fluctuations
The Basic Model of Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply
The aggregate-supply curve shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level.

25. Figure 2 Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply...
Price
Level
Aggregate
supply
Aggregate
demand
Equilibrium
output
price level
Quantity of
Output

26. THE AGGREGATE-DEMAND CURVE
The four components of GDP (Y) contribute to the aggregate demand for goods and services.
Y = C + I + G + NX

27. Figure 3 The Aggregate-Demand Curve...
Price
Level
Aggregate
demand P Y
1. A decrease
in the price
level . . . Y2 P2
Quantity of
increases the quantity of
goods and services demanded.
Output

28. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping
The Price Level and Consumption: The Wealth Effect
The Price Level and Investment: The Interest Rate Effect
The Price Level and Net Exports: The Exchange-Rate Effect

29. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping
The Price Level and Consumption: The Wealth Effect
A decrease in the price level makes consumers feel more wealthy, which in turn encourages them to spend more.
This increase in consumer spending means larger quantities of goods and services demanded.

30. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping
The Price Level and Investment: The Interest Rate Effect
A lower price level reduces the interest rate, which encourages greater spending on investment goods.
This increase in investment spending means a larger quantity of goods and services demanded.

31. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Is Downward Sloping
The Price Level and Net Exports: The Exchange-Rate Effect
When a fall in the U.S. price level causes U.S. interest rates to fall, the real exchange rate depreciates, which stimulates U.S. net exports.
The increase in net export spending means a larger quantity of goods and services demanded.

32. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Might Shift
The downward slope of the aggregate demand curve shows that a fall in the price level raises the overall quantity of goods and services demanded.
Many other factors, however, affect the quantity of goods and services demanded at any given price level.
When one of these other factors changes, the aggregate demand curve shifts.

33. Why the Aggregate-Demand Curve Might Shift
Shifts arising from
Consumption
Investment
Government Purchases
Net Exports

34. Shifts in the Aggregate Demand Curve
Price
Level D2 P1 Y2
Remove bullet in graph – graph needs no additional title???
Aggregate
demand, D1 Y1
Quantity of Output

35. THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE
In the long run, the aggregate-supply curve is vertical.
In the short run, the aggregate-supply curve is upward sloping.

36. THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE
The Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve
In the long run, an economy’s production of goods and services depends on its supplies of labor, capital, and natural resources and on the available technology used to turn these factors of production into goods and services.
The price level does not affect these variables in the long run.

37. Figure 4 The Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve
Price
Level
Long-run
aggregate
supply P
1. A change
in the price
level . . . P2
does not affect
the quantity of goods
and services supplied
in the long run.
Natural rate
Quantity of
of output
Output

38. THE AGGREGATE-SUPPLY CURVE
The Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve
The long-run aggregate-supply curve is vertical at the natural rate of output.
This level of production is also referred to as potential output or full-employment output.

39. Why the Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift
Any change in the economy that alters the natural rate of output shifts the long-run aggregate-supply curve.
The shifts may be categorized according to the various factors in the classical model that affect output.

40. Why the Long-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift
Shifts arising
Labor
Capital
Natural Resources
Technological Knowledge

41. Figure 5 Long-Run Growth and Inflation
and growth in the
money supply shifts
aggregate demand . . .
Long-run
aggregate
supply,
LRAS
1980 Y
1990
LRAS Y
2000
LRAS
Price
Aggregate
Demand, AD
2000
Level
1. In the long run,
technological
progress shifts
long-run aggregate
supply . . . AD
1990 P
2000
and
ongoing inflation. P
1990 P
1980 AD
1980 Y
1980
leading to growth
in output . . .
Quantity of
Output

42. A New Way to Depict Long-Run Growth and Inflation
Short-run fluctuations in output and price level should be viewed as deviations from the continuing long-run trends.

43. Why the Aggregate-Supply Curve Slopes Upward in the Short Run
In the short run, an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy tends to raise the quantity of goods and services supplied.
A decrease in the level of prices tends to reduce the quantity of goods and services supplied.

44. Figure 6 The Short-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve
Price
Level
Short-run
aggregate
supply Y P
1. A decrease
in the price
level . . . Y2 P2
reduces the quantity
of goods and services
supplied in the short run.
Quantity of
Output

45. Why the Aggregate-Supply Curve Slopes Upward in the Short Run
The Misperceptions Theory
The Sticky-Wage Theory
The Sticky-Price Theory
The order of discussion in Mankiw has been changed. The “misperceptions theory” must be moved to the bottom of the list. (This may affect the entire order of presentation following this slide.)

46. Why the Aggregate-Supply Curve Slopes Upward in the Short Run
The Misperceptions Theory
Changes in the overall price level temporarily mislead suppliers about what is happening in the markets in which they sell their output:
A lower price level causes misperceptions about relative prices.
These misperceptions induce suppliers to decrease the quantity of goods and services supplied.
Move this slide so that it follows the next two slides. That puts the discussion in the new order of the text.

47. Why the Aggregate-Supply Curve Slopes Upward in the Short Run
The Sticky-Wage Theory
Nominal wages are slow to adjust, or are “sticky” in the short run:
Wages do not adjust immediately to a fall in the price level.
A lower price level makes employment and production less profitable.
This induces firms to reduce the quantity of goods and services supplied.

48. The Sticky-Price Theory
Prices of some goods and services adjust sluggishly in response to changing economic conditions:
An unexpected fall in the price level leaves some firms with higher-than-desired prices.
This depresses sales, which induces firms to reduce the quantity of goods and services they produce.
For consistency, title this slide, “Why the Aggregate supply curves slopes upward in the short run” like the previous two slides. Then move “The sticky-price theory” in large print to the top bullet (like the previous two slides).

49. Why the Short-Run Aggregate-Supply Curve Might Shift
Shifts arising
Labor
Capital
Natural Resources
Technology
Expected Price Level

50. Why the Aggregate Supply Curve Might Shift
An increase in the expected price level reduces the quantity of goods and services supplied and shifts the short-run aggregate supply curve to the left.
A decrease in the expected price level raises the quantity of goods and services supplied and shifts the short-run aggregate supply curve to the right.
Should title be, “Why the short-run aggregate supply…”

51. Figure 7 The Long-Run Equilibrium
Price
Level
Long-run
aggregate
supply
Short-run
aggregate
supply
Aggregate
demand A
Equilibrium
price
Natural rate
of output
Quantity of
Output

52. Figure 8 A Contraction in Aggregate Demand
causes output to fall in the short run . . .
Price
Level
Short-run aggregate
supply, AS
Long-run
aggregate
supply
Aggregate
demand, AD
AS2
AD2
but over
time, the short-run
aggregate-supply
curve shifts . . . A P Y B P2 Y2
1. A decrease in
aggregate demand . . . C P3
and output returns
to its natural rate.
Quantity of
Output

53. TWO CAUSES OF ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
Shifts in Aggregate Demand
In the short run, shifts in aggregate demand cause fluctuations in the economy’s output of goods and services.
In the long run, shifts in aggregate demand affect the overall price level but do not affect output.

54. TWO CAUSES OF ECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS
An Adverse Shift in Aggregate Supply
A decrease in one of the determinants of aggregate supply shifts the curve to the left:
Output falls below the natural rate of employment.
Unemployment rises.
The price level rises.

55. Figure 10 An Adverse Shift in Aggregate Supply
1. An adverse shift in the short-
run aggregate-supply curve . . .
Price
Level
Long-run
Short-run
aggregate
supply, AS
AS2
aggregate
supply
Aggregate demand B Y2 P2 Y A P
and
the price
level to rise.
Quantity of
causes output to fall . . .
Output

56. The Effects of a Shift in Aggregate Supply
Stagflation
Adverse shifts in aggregate supply cause stagflation—a period of recession and inflation.
Output falls and prices rise.
Policymakers who can influence aggregate demand cannot offset both of these adverse effects simultaneously.

57. The Effects of a Shift in Aggregate Supply
Policy Responses to Recession
Policymakers may respond to a recession in one of the following ways:
Do nothing and wait for prices and wages to adjust.
Take action to increase aggregate demand by using monetary and fiscal policy.

58. Figure 11 Accommodating an Adverse Shift in Aggregate Supply
1. When short-run aggregate
supply falls . . .
Price
Level
Long-run
Short-run
aggregate
supply, AS
AS2
aggregate
AD2
supply C P3
policymakers can
accommodate the shift
by expanding aggregate
demand . . .
which
causes the
price level
to rise
further . . . P2 A P
but keeps output
at its natural rate.
Aggregate demand, AD
Natural rate
Quantity of
of output
Output

59. Summary
All societies experience short-run economic fluctuations around long-run trends.
These fluctuations are irregular and largely unpredictable.
When recessions occur, real GDP and other measures of income, spending, and production fall, and unemployment rises.

60. Summary
Economists analyze short-run economic fluctuations using the aggregate demand and aggregate supply model.
According to the model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply, the output of goods and services and the overall level of prices adjust to balance aggregate demand and aggregate supply.

61. Summary
The aggregate-demand curve slopes downward for three reasons: a wealth effect, an interest rate effect, and an exchange rate effect.
Any event or policy that changes consumption, investment, government purchases, or net exports at a given price level will shift the aggregate-demand curve.

62. Summary In the long run, the aggregate supply curve is vertical.
The short-run, the aggregate supply curve is upward sloping.
The are three theories explaining the upward slope of short-run aggregate supply: the misperceptions theory, the sticky-wage theory, and the sticky-price theory.
Bullet three, move the misperceptions theory to the end.

63. Summary
Events that alter the economy’s ability to produce output will shift the short-run aggregate-supply curve.
Also, the position of the short-run aggregate-supply curve depends on the expected price level.
One possible cause of economic fluctuations is a shift in aggregate demand.

64. Summary
A second possible cause of economic fluctuations is a shift in aggregate supply.
Stagflation is a period of falling output and rising prices.