1. Introduction to Instrumental Analysis in Chemistry
2017년, 기기분석

2. 전체 분석과정에 포함된 여러 단계 ;
1) Sampling
bulk material로 부터 시료의 제조 -분쇄, 혼합,건조,등
2) Preparation of solutions
- 시료의 종류, 분석 목적에 따라.
3) Separation
- 측정 성분 또는 방해 성분의 분리
4) Measurement
- 기기와 방법에 따라 2,3 과정 차이
5) Report (the most important)

3. *** 한 성분의 정량을 위해 여러 가지 방법이 가능
---분석 목적에 맞는 적합한 방법의 선택이 필요.
고려되어야 할 사항 ; speed, convenience,
accuracy, availability of equipment,
number of analyses,
amount of sample,
concentration of the analyte, etc.

5. Principles of Instrumental Analysis
by Douglas A. Skoog et al.
Analytical chemistry deals with methods for determining the chemical composition or samples or matter.
Qualitative ; information about the atomic or molecular species or functional groups.
- Quantitative ; numerical information as to the relative amount or one or more or the components.

6. 1A Classification of Analytical Methods 1A-1. Classical methods:
1) Qualitative:
① colors ② bp. or mp. ③ solubility in solvents ④ odors ⑤ activities, ⑥ refractive index, etc..
2) Quantitative: gravimetric & volumetric
1A-2. Instrumental Methods
- Measurements of physical properties of analytes:
conductivity, electrode potential, absorption or emission of light,
mass-to-charge ratio, fluorescence, chromatography, etc..

7. *기기분석: 물리적, 물리화학적 방법을 이용한 화학저울보다 일반적으로 복잡하고 값비싼 기재를 이용하여 분석
1860년 : Cs, Rb 발견 - 불꽃 광도법 시험
1927년 polarography
1940,41년: Beckmann사에서 flame photometer 상품화
…………
Advantages :
1) selectivity 大
2) 시간단축
3) 조작용이, 개인차 小
4) sensitivity 大
5) 자동화, 연속화 가능
6) 비파괴 분석 가능
Disadvantages:
1) 표준물질, 2) 분석치의 유효숫자 小
3) 기기가격 大 4)보수유지 난이

8. 1B. Types of Instrumental Methods
i ) Spectroscopy
ii) Electrochemistry
iii) Chromatography
iv) Mass spectrometry
v) Thermal methods
vi) Radioactivity
vii) Rate of reaction
viii) Microscopy

9. i) Spectroscopy a) Emission of radiation
--- Emission spectroscopy ( X-ray, UV-Visible, Electron, Auger)
--- Fluorescence and phosphorescence spectroscopy (X-ray,UV-Visible)
--- Radiochemistry
b) Absorption of radiation
--- Spectrophotometry ( X-ray, UV, visible, IR )
--- Photoacoustic spectroscopy
--- Nuclear magnetic resonance and Electron spin resonance spectroscopy
c) Scattering of radiation
--- Tubidimetry
--- Nephelometry
--- Raman spectroscopy

10. d) Refraction of radiation
--- Refractometry
--- Interferometry
e) Diffraction of radiation
--- X-ray and Electron diffraction methods
f) Rotation of radiation
--- Polarimetry
--- Optical rotatory dispersion
--- Circular dichroism

11. ii) Electrochemical a) Electrical potential --- Potentiometry
--- Chronopotentiometry
b) Electrical current
--- Polarography ( normal - differential pulse, classical…)
--- Amperometry (cyclic voltammetry, strriping voltammetry, chrono-…)
c) Electrical resistance
--- Conductometry
--- Oscillometry

12. iii) Chromatography a) Liquid chromatography --- Liquid - liquid (LLC)
--- Liquid - solid (LSC)
--- Liquid - bonded phase (LSB)
--- Ion - exchange (IEC)
--- Gel - permeation (GPC)
b) Gas chromatography
--- Gas - liquid (GLC)
--- Gas - solid (GSC)
--- Gas - bonded phase
c) Electrophoresis

13. iv) Other methods v) Rate of reaction ; vi) Radioactivity ;
a) Mass spectrometry
b) Thermal methods ; TG, DSC, DTA, etc.
c) Mass; gravimetry (quartz crystal microbalance)
*** See Figure: Components of a typical instrument***
v) Rate of reaction ;
Kinetic methods
vi) Radioactivity ;
Activation & isotope dilution methods

14. 1C. Instruments for Analysis

15. 1C-1 Data Domains
Data-domain map: Nonelectrical & Electrical

16. 1C-2 Nonelectrical domain
: ex) characteristic properties of emission of radiation

18. 1C-3 Electrical Domains Analog – Domain Signals: These are continous in both amplitude and time. Time – Domain information: As the time relationship of signal fluctuation Digital information: information can be represented by the state of a light bulb, a light-emitting diode, a toggle switch, or a logic-level signal

19. Figure 1-3 Diagram of a fluorometer

20. Diagram for digital data

21. 1C- 4 Detectors, Transducers and Sensors Instrument components:
Signal generator, Analytical input, Electrical generator, Signal transduce or Signal output or Mechanical process, Signal detector.
A. Signal generator
ex) pH변화, 기체의 열전도율, 불꽃세기의 강도, 용액에 흡수되는 광선의 강도
energy source, optical system
B. Detectors (input Transducers)
A transduce is a device that converts one of energy to an other.
i.e thermocouple, a photocell, the beam or a balance.
detector : transducers that act on a chemical signal.
analytical signal - electrical voltage or current
ex) 광전지, 광전관, 유리전극

22. Detectors: a mechanical, electrical, or chemical device that identifies, records, or indicates a change in one of the variables in its environment (P, T, Q, hv, etc).
Transducers: The devices that convert information in nonelectrical domains to information in electrical domains and the converse.
Sensors: The class of anlytical devices that are capable of monitoring specific chemical species continuosley and reversiblely.

23. Chemical sensors

24. C. Circuits - output signal
ex) 1) converting circuit : 전류 - 전압, 직류 - 교류
2) amplifying circuit : 필요한 수준까지 충족
3) computing circuit : 표준과 비교, 미분, 적분..
4) assistant circuit : wave generation
5) power supply circuit : 위의 회로 동작을 위한 전원
D. Readout Devices (output의 표시)
ex) Analog meter: Digital meter, Oscilloscope,Recorder
E. Microprocessors and computers in instruments
- op amp. IC, A/D and D/A converters counters, microprocessor, and computers.

25. 1D Calibration of Instrumental Methods
분석기기의 성능판정 (신뢰성, 측정방식)
A 기기의 신뢰성
1) 타당성 - 감응도, 감동 , 응답
2) 정확도 - bias가 적은편
3) 정밀도 - dispersing 이 적은편
D-1. Comparison with standards
Direct Comparison: color comparison,…
Titrations: S.R. in a reaction of known stoichiometry
D-2. External–Standard Calibration: The Least –Squares Method,
Errors in External-Standard Calibration, Multivariate calibration
D-3. Standard-Addition Methods

26. The uncertainties are related to
the residual.

27. Errors in External-Standard Calibration
The raw analytical response is corrected by measuring a blank.
- A solvent blank
- A reagent blank
Blank corrections
Systematic errors can occur during the calibration process.
Contamination of the standards can also result in higher analyte concentrations than expected.
Random errors

28. Calibration plot for the standard addition method
S = kVsCs/Vt + kVxCx/ Vt , m = kCs/Vt , b=kVxCx/Vt , b/m = VxCx/Cs
Calibration plot for the standard addition method

29. Standard Addition Methods
Plot of S as a function of Vs

32. 1-E2 Performance characteristics of instruments
A) precision
- absolute standard deviation
- relation standard deviation
- standard deviation of to mean
- coefficient of variation
- variance
B) Bias
Bias = µ - Ƭ
(µ: population mean, Ƭ: true value)
C) Sensitivity
1) Calibration sensitivity: the slop of calibration curve
S = mc + Sbl, Cx=(Yc-b)/m
s : the measured signal
c : the concentration of the analyte
Sbl : the instrumental signal for a blank
m : the slop of the strait line
2) Analytical sensitivity ; Ɣ = m/ss
ss = the standard deviation of the signal

33. E) Applicable concentration range
D) Detection Limit
→ The a minimum concentration or weight of analyte that can be detected at a known confidence level.
- mean blank signal
Sm = Avg(Sbl) + kSbl
Sm – Avg(Sbl)
Def. of DL: Cm = m
Sm: minimal distinguishable analyte signal
E) Applicable concentration range
The limit of quantitative measurements is taken as being signal to ten times the standard deviation when the analyte concentration is zero. (LOQ & LOL)
F) Selectivity
A: analytes, B & C
S: mAcA + mBcB + mCcC+ Sbl
KB,A = mB/mA : Selectivity coefficient for A with respect to B
KC,A = mC/mA
Signal = mA (cA + kB,A cB + kC,A cC) + Sbl