1. The Nervous System

2. A great example of cell to cell communication and multicellular coordination…

3. Anatomy of the Nervous System
There are 2 main branches of the nervous system
Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
All nerves leading to rest of body

4. Anatomy of a Neuron
The main cells in the nervous system are called Neurons. They consist of three main parts
Cell body = contains the organelles, nucleus
Dendrites = short branches off the cell body where a signal is received
Axon = long branch off the cell body that leads to the next neuron

5. Continued Anatomy of a Neuron
Myelin = insulating layer that surrounds the axon to speed up the signal transfer
Synaptic Terminal = end of the neuron
Synapse = gap/space between neurons where neurotransmitters transfer

6. How do neurons communicate?
Signals transfer through neurons using synaptic signaling. It follows this general pathway
Dendrites  cell body  Axon  Synaptic Terminals (then into the synapse to get to the next neuron or other cell)

7. Talking Cells
The “signal” sent through a neuron is actually an electrical signal
Electricity is generated anytime an ion moves. By using the dam metaphor, the cells create ion movement cascades called action potentials
The movement of the ions cause changes in the + and – charges inside the cell

8. A Neuron at Rest
A neuron at rest (unstimulated) is slightly negatively charged thanks to the careful arrangement of ions by the cell. This is called the resting potential
This means that it is more negative inside than outside
The cell controls this potential by moving ions in or out as needed to adjust the charges

9. A Neuron at Rest
Resting potential and proper location of ions is maintained mostly by the Sodium-Potassium Pump
Pumps Na+ out of cell
Pumps K+ into the cell
Active transport
More sodium outside than
potassium inside = negative
cell

10. Ion Concentrations at Rest
Inside neuron
Outside neuron
Na+
Lower
Higher
Cl- K+
Leak channels allow some K+ to escape out of the cell in case it gets too positively charged on the inside
Leaves negatively charged molecules behind (Cl- ions, etc.)  more negative on the inside than on the outside.

11. Sending a Signal: Action Potential
GATED Na+ channels are embedded in the membrane of the neuron, but they are normally CLOSED. These channels can be triggered to open by a stimulus such as a touch or smell or ligand
When the gate opens, the sodium come rushing into the cell (dam metaphor) and cause the voltage to change.

12. Sending a Signal: Action Potential
More sodium channels that are voltage gated exist in the nearby membrane. These channels open in response to a change in voltage or charge near them. When that first gate opens by the stimulus and lets in the sodium, the other gates are triggered to open in a chain, adding more sodium and triggering the next in line.

13. The Cascade of Opening Sodium Gates is called an Action Potential
STEP 1: To start an action potential, some kind of stimulus (light, pressure, chemical, etc.) causes Na+ channels in the dendrite to open.
This causes Na+ to flood into the neuron from outside  DEPOLARIZATION

14. Questions… Why does Na+ diffuse in from the outside?
Higher concentration on the outside
When depolarization occurs, how is the charge inside the neuron affected?
Becomes more positively charged inside

15. Action Potential
STEP 2: The change in voltage triggers the next Na+ channel (voltage gated channel) to open.
STEP 3: As Na+ diffuses down the neuron, it continues to trigger voltage gated Na+ channels to open.
This is what sends a signal through the individual neurons towards the axon terminal.

16. Action Potential
STEP 4: Na+ voltage gated channels only open temporarily. After a short period of time, they close and an inactivation gate opens to prevent them from opening again for a little while  REFRACTORY PERIOD

17. Action Potential
STEP 5: The neuron must be “reset” (REPOLARIZED) by the opening of voltage gated K+ channels.
K+ flows out of the neuron, making the inside more negative again.
Why does K+ flow out?
Higher K+ concentrations inside neuron
The Na+/K+ pump helps reestablish resting potential.

18. Saltatory Conduction
Depolarization & Repolarization happens over and over down the axon, so the nerve impulse travels.
Myelin sheaths insulate the axon, keeping ions from getting too far away from the cell.

19. How does the signal jump the gap?
Remember that a gap exists between neurons that the action potential cannot “jump”. They are just too far apart. When the signal reaches the end of the axon and wants to go to the next cell in line, it must change to a chemical messenger instead of an electrical impulse. These chemical messengers are called neurotransmitters

20. How does the signal jump the gap?
The last voltage gated channel triggers the release of Calcium ions.
This triggers exocytosis and vesicles that contain neurotransmitter molecules fuse with the plasma membrane and expel the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft (space between neurons)

21. Communication between Neurons
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the next neuron
This triggers a Na+ chemical gated channel to open on that neuron, creating a new action potential

22. Communication between Neurons
After the signal has been sent, neurotransmitters must be eliminated. This is done by
Diffusion = diffuse away
Reuptake (proteins that reabsorb the neurotransmitters for recycling)
Enzyme degradation (proteins that break down the neurotransmitters completely)

23. Question…
Why is it important that our bodies / medications control nerve communication?
So that signals are only sent to neurons when needed.