1. Deborah Kanter1, Cynthia Shih1, & Yvonne Bohr1,2
Comparing Maternal Risk Factors and Child Outcomes in Immigrant and Non-Immigrant Groups
Deborah Kanter1, Cynthia Shih1, & Yvonne Bohr1,2
1Department of Psychology, York University, 2Aisling Discoveries Child and Family Centre
La Marsh Centre for
Child & Youth Research
Abstract
Results
Discussion
Maternal risk factors, including depression and stress, are often linked to child externalizing behaviour (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999).  This study explores the relationship between these risk factors and child externalizing symptoms in immigrant (IMM) and non-immigrant (NIMM) communities. Mother-child dyads were recruited at a child and family mental health agency in Toronto. Participants completed measures assessing maternal depression (Beck Depression Inventory (BDI); Beck et al., 1996), parenting stress (Parenting Stress Index - Short Form (PSI); Abidin, 1995), and child externalizing symptoms (Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL); Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000). We hypothesized that depression would be higher in NIMM families, parenting stress would be higher in IMM families, and that these two risk factors would predict child externalizing symptoms in both groups. Although none of these hypotheses were confirmed, it was determined that maternal depression predicted child externalizing symptoms in the IMM group and not in the NIMM group.  Implications for culturally-appropriate interventions are discussed.
Hyp1
An independent samples t-test was run to examine mean differences in depression between IMM and NIMM groups. There was no significant difference between groups in terms of depression, t(65)= 1.52, p=.13.
Hyp 2 An independent samples t-test was run to examine mean differences in parenting stress between IMM and NIMM groups. There was no significant difference between groups in terms of parenting stress, t(65)= .17, p=.87
The results of this study demonstrated that there is no difference between IMM and NIMM groups in terms of maternal depression or parenting stress.  Parenting stress was predictive of child externalizing behaviour in both groups, however maternal depression was only predictive in the IMM group.  
There may have been similar levels of stress and depression in both groups because the majority of participants in both groups had limited income, which is frequently associated with a higher risk of mental health problems (CMHA, 2007).  
Maternal depression may have been predictive of child externalizing behaviour in the IMM group because  IMM children may rely on their mothers to help guide them through the acculturative re-adjustments. If IMM mothers’ are having difficulty in re-settlement (e.g. they experience depression due to acculturative stressors and feelings of isolation in a new country), they will not be able to provide their children with the needed support, which will likely impact their children’s adjustment .
Limitations
All of the measures relied solely on mothers’ perceptions, which may not reflect the true, clinical level of these variables.  This may be of particular concern with immigrant mothers, since they may come from countries where mental health problems are highly stigmatized and they may have limited awareness of Western psychological concepts, such as depression.  
Introduction
Depression and stress are maternal risk factors that are often associated with the development of externalizing behaviour problems in children (Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). Past studies that have compared externalizing behaviour problems in children of IMM and NIMM families have shown mixed results. While some have demonstrated that children of IMM families have higher levels of externalizing problems than their NIMM peers (Dagler, Melhuish & Barnes, 2011), others have demonstrated that children of IMMs are more socially adapted than NIMM peers (Speciale & Regidor, 2011). Few studies have looked at the maternal risk factors that lead to child externalizing behaviour and if these factors differ either between IMM and NIMM groups, or in their prediction of child externalizing behaviour. We believe that there are differences in these  maternal risk factors in the two groups since: a) depression is underreported in IMM groups due to stigma (Fox et al., 2001), and b) acculturative stresses may elevate IMM mothers’ parenting stress (Su & Hynie, 2011).
Hyp 3 Two simple linear regressions were run to examine the relationship between depression and child externalizing behaviour in IMM and NIMM groups.
In the IMM group, depression was a significant predictor of child externalizing problems [R= .62, F(1, 24)= 14.27, p= 0.01]
In the NIMM group, depression was not a significant predictor of child externalizing problems [R= .17, F(1, 21)= .56, p= 0.16].
Hyp 4 Two simple linear regressions were run to examine the relationship between parenting stress and child externalizing behaviour in IMM and NIMM groups.
In the IMM group, parenting stress was a significant predictor of child externalizing problems [R= .57, F(1, 24)= 11.02, p= 0.009]
In the NIMM group, parenting stress was a significant predictor of child externalizing problems [R= .51, F(1, 22)= 7.41, p= 0.009]
Objectives
Methodology
 To compare the maternal risk factors (stress and depression) for child externalizing behaviour in IMM and NIMM families
 To determine if these maternal risk factors predicted child externalizing behaviour
Hyp 1: Maternal depression would be lower in IMM families than in NIMM families.
Hyp 2: Parenting stress would be higher in IMM families than in NIMM families.
Hyp 3: Maternal depression would predict child externalizing behaviour in both groups.
Hyp 4: Parenting stress would predict child externalizing behaviour in both groups.
Participants 56 Mother-child dyads (32 first-generation IMM mothers, 24 NIMM mothers) were recruited at a child and family mental health agency in Toronto, Canada as a part of a larger project on parental attributions. Measures
Maternal depression and parenting stress were assessed with the BDI-II (Beck et al, 1996) and the PSI-Short Form
(Abidin, 1995) respectively. Child externalizing behaviour was assessed using the CBCL (Achenbach & Rescoria, 2000). All of these measures have been validated cross-culturally (e.g., BDI-II, Zheng et al., 1988; PSI-SF, Abidin, 1995; CBCL, Leung, et al., 2006)
Procedure Following an intake interview with an agency worker, participants completed the questionnaires.  These measures were part of a larger questionnaire package for the larger project on parental attributions.
Conclusions
These findings suggest that although it is important to address parenting stress in the treatment of children’s externalizing behaviour, treating maternal depression is especially critical in immigrant families.
Future research comparing these maternal risk factors cross-culturally should include diagnostic and observational measures of risk factors and child problem behaviour.
References
Canadian Mental Health Association of Ontario (2007). Backgrounder: Poverty and mental illness. Canada. Retrieved from:
Daglar, M., Melhuish, E. & Barnes (2011). Parenting and preschool child behaviour among Turkish immigrant, migrant and non-migrant families.
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Fox, P.G., Burns, K.R., Popovich, J.M & Ilg, M.M. (2001). Depression among immigrant Mexican women and Southeast Asian refugee women in the
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Goodman, S.H., & Gotlib, I.H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding
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Speciale, A.M., & Regidor, E. (2011). Understanding the universality of the immigrant health paradox: The Spanish perspective. Journal of Immigrant
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Su, C., & Hynie, M. (2011). Effects of life stress, social support, and cultural norms on parenting styles among mainland Chinese, European Canadian,
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