1. United States Government
Chapter 7: Congress at Work

2. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law

3. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Types of Bills
Two types:
Private
Individual people or places
Ex. Claims against government or person’s immigration problem (Black Farmers)
Public
General matters and apply to the entire nation
Controversial because the touch many people
Ex. tax cuts, health care, civil rights

4. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Types of Resolutions
Make policy on unusual or temporary matters
Three kinds
Simple: matters affecting only 1 house of Congress and is passed by that house alone
Joint: passed in same form by both houses
force of law when signed by president
Constitutional amendment are joint resolutions
Concurrent: actions of both houses, but law not needed
Ex. adjourning Congress

5. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Rider
Attached to a bill likely to pass
Provision on a subject other than the one covered in the bill
Can cause a president to veto a bill
A bill with a lot of riders is called a “Christmas Tree” bill

6. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Earmarks aka Pork Barrel Projects
Way that members of Congress specify that some part of a funding bill will go toward a certain purpose
Pet projects that appeal to constituents

7. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Why so few bills become law
Fewer than 10% become laws
Bill creation long and complicated
There can be more than 100 steps
Lots of room for opponents to kill it
Sponsors must be willing to compromise
Introduced as a symbolic gesture
Show support for a policy, attract media attention, satisfy a group of supporters

9. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Introduced
Ideas from citizens, interest groups, executive branch
Drafted by legislators, their staffs, lawyers for Senate/House committee, interest groups
House: drops bill in hopper near clerk’s desk
Senate: formal presentation after recognition
A bill is given a Title and number (H.R. 1), printed, and distributed. This is called the 1st reading.

10. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Committee Action
Bills sent to committee that deals with their subject
Chairs send bill to sub-committee
They have several options:
Reject (ignore or “die” or “pigeonhole”)
Kill (majority vote)
Rewrite
Amend
Recommend for adoption as is

11. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Committee Hearing
When decision to act is made, they hold a hearing
Listen to testimony from experts on the bill’s subject
Gather information
Can be used to influence public opinion for or against bill
Focus public attention on issue
Outside groups influence bill

12. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Committee Hearings
Use of internet
Interactive hearings using expert witnesses
Broadcast hearings, give chance for questions
Report status of bill on individual web pages
Make info available in second language

13. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Markup Session
After hearings
Go section by section through bill
Decide on what changes, if any, to make
Majority vote of committee required to change

14. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Reporting a bill
After changes committee votes to kill or report bill
Send to House or Senate for action
Sent with a committee report to explain actions, describe bill, list major changes and give opinions
Recommendations: pass or unfavorable (why?)

15. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Floor Action
Debate/Amend
Amendments added to bill (unless closed)
2nd reading
Types of Amendments
Major changes
Correct typographical errors
Slow bill’s progress
Kill bill

16. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Floor Action
Voting on bill
Quorum: majority of members present
3rd reading
Vote
Voice “aye” or “no”
Standing or division to count “ayes” or “nos”
Roll call: alphabetical order
Electronic (1973) – save time counting 435 votes

17. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Final steps
Bill must pass both houses in identical forms
Conference committee
Conference report must be accepted by a majority and a majority of both houses must approve

18. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Final steps
Presidential action
Sign to become law
Keep bill for 10 days without signing, if Congress in session it becomes law
Veto
Pocket veto (last 10 days of session)

19. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Congressional override of veto
2/3 vote in each house = law
Line Item Veto
Reject specific lines of a bill while accepting the rest
This was ruled unconstitutional in Clinton v. City of New York

20. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law
Registering Law
Bill becomes law and registered with National Archives and Records Service
Labeled private or public
Numbered (Ex. PL )
Tracking Legislation on the Internet
THOMAS
Congressional Quarterly
Roll Call

21. Section 1: How a Bill Becomes a Law

22. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills

23. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
Making Decisions About Taxes
Most of government revenue is from taxes
Revenue-income from taxes
Taxes-money that people and businesses pay to support the government

24. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
House of Representatives and Revenue Bills
Has exclusive power to start all revenue bills
Almost all work on tax law occurs in the Ways and Means Committee
Decides whether to go along with presidential requests for tax cuts or increases
Makes rules for who will pay how much tax
e.g. - Influences tax deductions for parents or benefits for businesses

25. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
House of Representatives and Revenue Bills
Tax bill used to be debated under closed rule
Forbids amendments to bill from the floor
Only members of Ways and Means had direct hand in writing bill
1973: amendments from floor allowed

26. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
Senate and Revenue Bills
All tax bills must start in the House
No closed rule
Amendments allowed
Perception of more special interest influence
Committee on Finance deals with tax matters

27. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
Appropriating Money
Appropriation-approval of government spending belongs to Congress
Congress must pass laws to appropriate money
Approve spending before departments and agencies of executive branch can spend money

28. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
How Congress Appropriates Money
Two-step procedure
Authorization Bill: sets up federal program and specifies how much money can be appropriated
Ex. bill to build recreational facility in inner cities; limit of $30 million can be spent per year; administered by Dept. of Housing and Urban Affairs (HUD)
Appropriation Bill: when request is made to receive money that was authorized to run federal program
Ex. HUD requests money that has been authorized for rec facilities

29. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
How Congress Appropriates Money
Each year president presents budget to Congress
Congressional Budget Office
Appropriations committee creates own appropriations bills
May only partially award grant of money
Ex. Only $15 million award for rec facilities. HUD will have to ask for more money next year

30. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills

31. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
The Appropriations Committee
House and Senate have committees
12 subcommittees
Department heads and program directors answer questions about their budgets in hearings
Explain why they need money
Return yearly to request money
Federal program familiarity
Relationships and favor to certain agencies
Special-interest influence

32. Section 2: Taxing and Spending Bills
Uncontrollable Expenditures
Appropriations committees do not have voice in all current spending
Earlier laws dictate certain spending
Ex. Medicare, Social Security
Entitlements: social programs that entitle individuals to a certain program or monetary benefit

33. Section 3: Influencing Congress

34. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Influences on Lawmakers
Temperament: risk taker or safe
The nature of the issue – Does it matter at home?
Congressional staffers – they control the information hat gets to the member, control his/her calendar
Constituents and their opinions
Party Opinion
Presidential Agenda
Special Interest Groups

35. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Influences of Voters
What Voters Expect
Lawmakers are heavily influenced by the needs and opinions of their constituents
Needs of the district vs. needs of the nation
Voters say they want their elected officials to listen to their votes, but few bother to find out how they actually voted.
The way a member votes on issues will be brought back up during an election, allowing voters to judge their record (good or bad)

36. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Influences of Voters
Legislators know what the ‘folks back home” want by:
making trips back to their district
Dozens of visits per year, asking questions
reading letters sent by constituents
s are easy, but personal letters get the most attention
reading reports written by staff members in the district offices
keeping up with local media
Surveys and Polls
They use media polls or make their own
Key Supporters
The people who donate, volunteer, and are guaranteed supporters

37. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Influences of Parties
Party Voting
Members of Congress generally support their party’s position on major issues. They may disagree if their constituents feel differently.
This is above 80% of votes now
House members tend to be more loyal to the party platform than Senators.

38. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Influences of Parties
Importance of Parties
This makes sense because legislators join one party or another based on the core beliefs of the party; the parties tend to attract people who hold the same general ideas about issues.
On some issues, the leadership will allow members to “vote their conscience”, but will push them to tow the party line in other instances.
This is the whip’s job.

39. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Other Influences
Influence of the President
All presidents try and influence Congress, but some do more than others
The president can use his “bully pulpit” to influence the media and public opinion in order to influence Congress
The president can give or withhold political favors in order to persuade lawmakers to support the laws they want to see passed.

40. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Other Influences
Influence of Interest Groups
Lobbyists are a critical part of the legislative process
They influence, or lobby, lawmakers on behalf of their employers
Interest groups and their lobbyists represent groups such as
labor unions (AFL-CIO)
business groups (chambers of commerce)
education groups (National Council for the Social Studies, NEA)
environmental groups (PETA, Greenpeace)
minority groups (Arab-American League, NAACP, NOW)

41. Section 3: Influencing Congress
Other Influences
Influence of Political Action Committees (PAC)
Interest groups raise money through their members’ donations as well as contributions from Political Action Committees (PACs), which are fundraising groups.
PACs must make the name of donors public and there is an individual limit to how much can be donated.
After the 2010 Citizen’s United vs. FEC, Super PACs were created.
These can accept unlimited contributions and can spend unlimited amounts of money and their donors are secret
They are not allowed to give money or coordinate with a candidate or politician directly.

42. Section 3: Influencing Congress

43. Section 4: Helping Constituents

44. Section 4: Helping Constituents
Handling Problems
Many different requests
House and Senate members focus on dealing with their constituents’ problems with government. This is called casework.
This includes things like:
Handling requests from members of the armed forces who live in the district
Setting up meetings between business people and federal officials regulating them
Helping individuals file complaints and get corrections from federal agencies
Helping constituents find jobs in the government
Helping get more government services
People want small government until they want government help.

45. Section 4: Helping Constituents
Handling Problems
Who Handles Casework?
Caseworkers on Congresspersons’ staffs assist them with constituents’ requests for help.
They only get the member involved when they hit a roadblock
Purpose of Casework
Casework is very important because it:
helps the legislator get reelected
Draws attention to problems that need congressional attention
Helps the average citizen deal with problems they have with the government.

46. Section 4: Helping Constituents
Helping the District or State
Public Works Legislation
Legislators want to bring federal projects and money to their districts and states (AKA pork barrel legislation)
This includes things like post offices, dams, military bases, harbors and river improvements, federally funded highways, veteran’s hospitals, pollution-treatment centers, and mass-transit projects.
These projects bring funds and jobs and help win votes for the House or Senate member.
The “scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” method is very common in both houses. This is called logrolling.

47. Section 4: Helping Constituents

48. Section 4: Helping Constituents
Helping the District or State
Winning Grants and Contracts
Federal grants and contracts make a huge difference in the amount of money coming in to a state.
Lawmakers fight to ensure their district gets their fair share.
E.G. Oak Ridge National Labs has Lamar Alexander, Bob Corker, and Rep. Fleischman fight to get it contracts for government projects.

49. Section 4: Helping Constituents
Helping the District or State
Behind the Scenes
Congress cannot control Executive Dept. contracts and grants like they can Congressional spending
Lawmakers use their relationship with officials to encourage favorable hearings and negotiations
They encourage and help constituents lobby officials in charge of programs.
They hire and train staff to assist constituents in writing grant proposals.