1. Personality
The term comes from the Latin word persona, which means mask.
Those who define personality as a mask view it as one’s public self.
It is the aspect of ourselves we select to display to the world.

2. This definition implies that important aspects of a person remain concealed for some reason.
However, this is just one definition.

3. Personality characteristics are established both by biological makeup and experience.
The resultant “personality” is the total pattern of characteristic ways of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving that constitute the individual’s distinctive ways of relating to his/her environment.

4. Three Concerns of Personality Theory
Every human being is
1. like every other human being.
2. like some other human beings
3. like no other human being.

5. As opposed to other psychological theorists (learning, motivation, etc
As opposed to other psychological theorists (learning, motivation, etc.), it is only the personality theorist who tries to present a complete picture of the human being.
All theorists agree that personality is long term. It does not change from situation to situation.

6. Goals of Personality Theory
Describe what humans are like
Explain why humans are like that
(both human nature and individual differences)

7. Determinism Most personality theorists are determinists.
If all influences acting on a person at any given time were known, it would be possible to predict that person’s behavior.
Different theories stress different determinants of behavior.
Only existential humanists reject determinism believing that human behavior is freely chosen.

8. Early Theories Hippocrates (400s BCE) Four Temperaments
1. Sanguine (blood): cheerful & optimistic
2. Melancholic (black bile): gloomy & depressed
3. Choleric (yellow bile): angry & irritable
4. Phlegmatic (phlegm): calm & unflappable

9. Franz Josef Gall ( CE)
Phrenology: If the brain is more developed in some areas and less in others, the skull will follow these bumps and depressions.
Study of the skull will show personality, as certain areas are associated with certain traits; destructiveness located behind the ear.

11. Psychodynamic Theory Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) Basic Premises:
1. Psychic Determinism – nothing
happens by chance.
2. Dominance of Unconscious Processes -
things that are out of awareness cannot
be controlled.
3. Behavior is the Product of Dynamic Forces in Interaction – “want” vs. “can’t” vs. “should.”
4. Personality Develops Through a Series of Stages

12. Personality’s Basic Structures
Id: primitive, innate urges or instincts, such as sex and aggression
(The id seeks immediate gratification of needs. It is irrational & impulsive.)
Ego: takes into account external conditions and the consequences of behaviors
(The ego tells us whether it is safe to satisfy needs. It is logical.)
Superego: a person’s conscience
(The superego tells us whether it is right or wrong to satisfy needs. It is moral.)

13. Id – “I want it and I want it now!”
Ego – represses the id.
(Repression: the tendency to avoid or deny threatening material.)
Repression does not fully keep threatening material out of our conscious mind, thus the reduction of anxiety requires one or more Defense Mechanisms.

14. Primary Defense Mechanisms
Repression
Denial
Displacement: shift emotional response to a safer target; i.e. you are mad at your boss, so you come home and yell at your spouse.
Sublimation: negative energy transformed into a constructive act; i.e. you are mad at your boss, so you come home and build a table in your woodshop.

15. Secondary Defense Mechanisms
Projection – You have unacceptable impulses, so you project your feelings onto others.
(You are hostile to people because you convince yourself that they are hostile to you.)
Reaction Formation – expressing impulses in their opposite form
(You hate someone, so you are extremely polite to him/her.)

16. Identification – resolving anxiety by taking on characteristics of person causing it
(P.O.W.s begin taking on characteristics of brutal captors.)
Rationalization – finding socially acceptable reasons for thoughts or actions based on unacceptable motives
(Mom is jealous, but says she is “protecting” beautiful eighteen-year-old daughter by not letting her date.)

17. When people give you reasons for their actions, sometimes it is reasonable and not a defense.
It is a defense when it is done too much.

18. Psychosexual Development
Fixation – arrest of impulses at a particular stage
(You mature in other areas but not in fixed one because of unresolved conflict; trauma, deprivation, or overindulgence.)
Regression – stress causes you to go to an earlier level of development; more immature way of acting.
(Adult throwing a temper tantrum)
Libido – the psychic energy that powers all mental activity

19. Stages Oral Stage (1st year of life) Sensation focused on the mouth.
Fixation = gullible person; take in whatever anyone tells you or
sarcastic person; makes “biting” remarks
Anal Stage (1 – 3 years old)
Child asked to control bowels now.
Fixation = [too much praise] Anal Expulsive person; disorderly adult or
[too much criticism] Anal Retentive person; stingy, precise adult

20. Phallic Stage (3 – 6 years old)
Boys and girls notice that they are anatomically different.
Oedipus Complex – male child wants same special relationship with mom that dad has.
Castration Anxiety – fear that, if dad finds out about son’s desires, then dad will castrate him.
Son resolves this anxiety by identification with his dad; takes on dad’s values & beliefs {Superego develops}.

21. Penis Envy – female child becomes aware that dad has power and a penis
Penis Envy – female child becomes aware that dad has power and a penis. Electra Complex – she has fantasy that having sex with dad will “give her the penis/power she lost.” As no sex occurs, she eventually re-identifies with mom; takes on values & beliefs {Superego Develops}. Women fixated in this stage symbolically castrate men through embarrassment, deception, and derogation.

22. Latency Stage (6 – 12 years old)
Primary task is to learn about the world outside of the family.
Children become aware of who is popular, etc.
Sex is on hold.
Children pour repressed libidal energy into school, athletics, friendships, etc.
Fixation = reckless, vain, proud person who is incapable of close love

23. Genital Stage ( 12 – adult)
Child’s energy again focuses on genitals .
The fewer the fixations, the greater the ability to develop adult relationships with the opposite sex.
A mentally healthy person has the capacity to enjoy work & love and, thus, can enjoy life.
(flexible & logical – can handle problems)
However, most people end up with some sort of fixation.

24. Carl Jung (1875 – 1961)

25. Jung read Freud’s book on dream interpretation.
Freud named Jung his successor.
Eventually they began to disagree over Oedipus Complex & Libido (Jung = general creativity).
Jung went into isolation for six years to work on his theories.

26. Jung investigated Paranormal Psychology.
He felt that we see only a fragment of reality.
He believed that spirits of the dead exist around us.
He traveled the world looking for universals between peoples.
Mandala: the universal expression of spirituality.
He saw this across many cultures.

27. Mandalas
They are circle shaped because that is the perfect form.

28. Jung’s Theory
The ego projects a persona – what you show the world. (mask)
You know that the real you is different than what you show the world.
The persona is a compromise between the real you and what society expects.
(You need to look and act as society expects, otherwise people won’t trust you.
i.e. professor)

29. Unconscious Personal: all the input you have ever perceived
You can relax and gain access to this.
Collective: the accumulated culture of all mankind is locked in the psyche, even prehuman.
This explains deja-vu; an ancestor had a similar experience.
Any expressive activity (art, etc.) lets you express unconscious elements.
“The Force” from Star Wars.

30. Archetypes Inherited patterns of experience
People have archetypes of both male & female in them.
Amimus = masculine
Anima = feminine
Part of personality depends on which one you empower.
You have an archetype of all things/experiences and your satisfaction depends on how well real things fit your archetype of what that thing should be.

31. Jung’s evidence:
Christian communion service is much like Bantu magic ceremony because they both spring from the same archetype.
(ritual cannibalism)
Archetypes are modifiable – you are born with a bias, but your own experience will modify this. (fear of the dark, etc.)

32. Developmental Scheme of Personality
We have an innate preference for perceiving:
a) by Direct Sensing
[people here interested in reality]
b) Using Intuition
[people here so into possibilities that they detach from reality]

33. Scheme, continued We have an innate preference for evaluation:
a) Thinking
[objective, logical process]
b) Feeling
[subjective process]
The preferred type is used more, developed more, & trusted more.
By combining these we obtain eight character types.

34. Temperament
Introverts – directs attention to the inner world; inside his/her own head
Extroverts – directs attention to the outer world
About mid-life people begin turning their attention to approach that they have neglected.
This leads us to become a more complete person.

35. Problems
Complexes: emotionally loaded clusters of thoughts and feelings
Complexes divide the personality against itself, which causes problems with awareness.

36. Complex Indicators (Using Stimulus Response)
A longer than average reaction time following presentation of the stimulus word
Responding by repeating the stimulus word
Not responding
Speech problems during responding; stuttering, etc.
Meaningless verbalizations; made-up words, etc.
Rhyming with stimulus word
Providing multiple responses to one stimulus

37. Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937)

38. Life Style All children begin life in an inferior position
Inferiority leads to a striving for superiority.
Life Style is determined by feelings of inferiority and attempts at compensation.
(It is a product of early decisions about one’s self and the world; by age five.)
Life Style may be either constructive or destructive.

39. Life Style Beliefs
The Life Style is characterize by four types of convictions (beliefs):
1. Self Concept – beliefs about the sort of person you are {winner/loser, effective/ineffective, etc.}
2. Self Ideal – beliefs about what you have to do to be ok or get ahead.
3. World View – beliefs about whether the world a friendly or dangerous place
4. Ethical Convictions – beliefs about personal rights & wrongs

40. Birth Order
Adler focused on birth order because parents treat children differently depending on this.
First Born – politically conservative, looks to the past, follows adult job lead.
More likely to be perverts & criminals.
Second Born – very competitive, even revolutionary
Last Born – highly ambitious, tend to follow unique paths
Most likely to be pampered & give up easily.

41. Karen Horney (1885 – 1952)

42. Human Nature It is inherently constructive.
We strive to develop our own unique potentialities.
Personality development is strongly influenced by culture (social factors).
Psychopathology results when the urge to positive growth is blocked by social forces.

43. Development of Neurosis
Pathogenic Parental Behaviors: parents’ attitudes toward children are influenced by their own problems.
Basic Anxiety: feelings of insecurity & apprehension in child caused by parents
Drive for positive growth replaced by a drive for safety.
(Who you are is not good enough. You need to change to feel safe.)
Interpersonal relationships based on what you think you need to be.

44. Personality Styles Passive: agreeable & compliant
(Sacrifices for others but expects much in return)
Aggressive: fights to get attention
(Believes most people are hostile, so ruthlessness is strength)
Withdrawn: repress emotions
(Tries to become self-sufficient/unneeding of love)

45. Trait Theory Describes normal behavior and then tries to predict it.
Many tests!
Gordon Allport ( )
He met with Freud.
Concluded that Freud went too
deep – not all motives are
unconscious.
Argued that adult motivations are
very different than children’s.

46. He called children “unsocialized horrors.”
Allport believed that each person was unique, and thus, psychologists should study that person’s unique traits.
His graduate students accumulated a list of 18,000 adjectives that described people
He reduced this to 4,000 by weeding out redundancies and synonyms.
Raymond Cattell began working with Allport.

47. Raymond Cattell (1905 – 1998)

48. Cattell worked with early computers to perform Factor Analysis.
By measuring the relationship of one variable to another, the computers determined Correlational Coefficients.
(shy, introverted, outgoing, wild, etc; rate yourself according to each variable.)
Cattell identified sixteen Tempermental Factors that explained clusters of highly related adjectives.

49. Tempermental Factors Affectia Sizia Socially adjusted Socially hostile
Easygoing Indifferent
Warmhearted Reserved
Intelligence Unintelligent
Alert Dull
Imaginative Stupid
Thoughtful Unimaginative
Ego Strength Ego Weakness
Unworried Anxious
Mature Infantile
Stoic Worried
Patient Impatient
Domination Subordination
Confident Unsure
Boastful Modest
Competitive Accommodating
Assertive Humble

50. Surgency Desurgency
Talkative Silent
Genial Serious
Cheerful Depressed
Responsive Seclusive
Superego Strength Superego Weakness
Conscientiousness Unscrupulous
Responsible Frivolous
Persevering Irresolute
Loyal Undependable
Parmia Threctia
Carefree Careful
Overtly interested in sex Overtly disinterested in sex
Verturesome Shy
Premisia Harria
Introspective Practical
Sensitive Insensitive
Sentimental Logical

51. Protension Alaxia
Suspicious Credulous
Jealous Trustful
Skeptical Unsuspecting
Wary Gullible
Autia Praxernia
Eccentric Practical
Imaginative Conventional
Complacent Poised
Self-absorbed Earnest
Shrewdness Artlessness
Socially alert Socially clumsy
Insightful regarding others Crude
Expedient Indifferent
Calculating Apathetic
Guilt Proclivity Guilt Rejection
Timid Self-confident
Worrisome Cheerful
Depressed Without fear
Moody Self-sufficient

52. Radicalism Conservatism
Encourages change Rejects change
Rejects convention Disgusted by foul language
Freethinking Traditional
Self-Sufficiency Group-Adherence
Temperamentally independent Seeks social approval
Prefers working with a few assistants Group dependent
Prefers reading to classes Prefers to travel with others
Prefers textbooks to novels Joiner
High Self-sentiment Strength Low Self-sentiment Strength
Controlled Careless
Sensitive to uncertainty Rapidly changing interests
Does not make promise he can’t keep Tries several approaches to the same problem
Does not say things he later regrets Does not persevere in the face of obstacles
High Ergic Tension Low Ergic Tension
Tense Relaxed
Unexpected lapses of memory Composed
Frustrated b/c of unsatisfied psych needs Few periods of depression

53. Ergs Erg: from the Greek word ergon = energy
Ergs provide the energy for all behavior.
An erg is a dynamic, basic source trait.
Trait: consistent, transsituational way of responding
Ergs are similar to what other theorists have called drives, needs, or instincts.
While attitudes are learned, ergs are innate.

54. An erg has four aspects:
It causes selective perception; that is it causes some things to be attended to more than others.
(i.e. Hungry people notice food.)
It stimulates an emotional response to certain thoughts or subjects.
(i.e. The thought of eating is pleasant.)
It stimulates goal-directed behavior.
(A hungry person will do whatever is necessary to come into contact with food.)
It result in some sort of consummatory response.
(When one comes into contact with food, one will eat it.)

55. Ten Ergic Feelings & Goals
Hunger > Food
Sex > Mating
Lonliness > Gregariousness
Pity > Parental Protectiveness
Curiosity > Exploration
Fear > Security
Pride > Self Assertion
Sensuousness > Narcissistic Sex
Anger > Pugnacity (quarrelsome)
Greed > Acquisitiveness

56. Cattell defined personality as “whatever predicts behavior.”
We have a shift away from motivation and toward enduring behaviors – traits – that will predict what people will do.
Cardinal Traits: influence almost everything a person does.
Only observable in a small number of people.

57. Romance = Don Juan

58. Compassion = Florence Nightingale

59. Central Traits: summarize the consistencies in a person’s behavior
(i.e. punctuality, neatness, persistence,…)
They are the major lines along which a particular personality is organized.
Will normally vary between five and ten.
Secondary Traits: similar to habits or attitudes but are still more general than either
(i.e. preferences for certain types of food, clothing, etc.)
These apply to a more specific range of behaviors than either cardinal or central traits.

60. Traits are not habits.
Habits are more specific than traits.
One may have the habits of brushing one’s teeth, showering every day, etc.
One has these habits because of the trait of cleanliness.
A trait synthesizes several habits.
Traits are not attitudes.
Attitudes are more specific.
Attitudes imply evaluation: for or against
positive or negative
Traits are responsible for all behavior and cognitions, whether or not evaluation is involved.

61. The Proprium
Allport believed personality consisted of both biological and psychological structures (traits).
Because all aspects of personality are organized implies the existence of an organizing agent.
Allport named the organizer of personality the proprium.
(previously called the soul, self, mind, or ego)
It includes all facts about a person that makes him or her unique.

62. Big Five Trait Factors Openness to Experience
ranges from imaginative & witty to simple & narrow in interests
Conscientiousness
ranges from well-organized & responsible to disorganized & unscrupulous
Extraversion
ranges from talkative to reserved
Agreeableness
ranges from good-natured, cooperative, & trusting to irritable, uncooperative, & suspicious
Neuroticism
ranges from calm to nervous

63. Hans Eysenck ( )

64. Three Traits Neuroticism = stability Psychoticism = instability
Extraversion = shy vs. outgoing
Eysenck’s theory is based primarily on physiology and genetics.
He argued that personality differences are rooted in genetic differences.
He hypothesized that some people have a more responsive sympathetic nervous system, which strongly influences their personality traits.

65. Eysenck tested subjects by putting lemon juice under their tongue.
Introverts salivated more than Extraverts.
He shined a light into their eyes.
Introverts’ pupils contracted more quickly than Extraverts’ did.
He had them work on tasks in the presence of considerable background noise.
Extraverts performed better on the task.

66. He concluded that Introverts and Extraverts have different optimal levels of arousal.
When put in an isolation chamber, rats will drink more alcohol and less water as time goes on.
As people get older, Introverts become more extraverted and vice-versa.

67. The Philosophical Theory Existential Humanism
Emphasis on relationships with other people.
Emphasis on relationship with yourself.
Emphasis on relationship with the world.

68. Rooted in Humanism – Jean Jacques Rousseau
“Man should live in harmony with nature.”
A belief in the fundamental goodness of mankind.
Rooted in Existentialism – Soren Kierkegaard
We have the freedom and responsibility to choose our behaviors.
Rooted in Phenomenology – Martin Heidegger
Subjective experience is paramount, since this is all we can know.

69. Central Hypotheses We affirm our existence by the act of choosing.
The more we exercise our capacity for conscious choice, the more our existence becomes meaningful.
Subjective experience is of major importance – each person sees his or her own reality, and even though it is unobservable, it is a true for him/her as any reality can be.
Emotional experience is more important than intellectual awareness.
Disordered behavior is a consequence of disordered perception.

70. Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987)

71. Difficulties During Personality Development
You develop a concept of yourself; what you should be and what you’d like to be.
You learn a need for Positive Regard; you want people to think well of you.
You begin to internalize other people’s attitudes about you.
This causes you to develop Conditions of Self Worth.
(You will only feel good about yourself if you meet these conditions; get straight “A”s, etc.)

72. These Conditions of Worth often do not match up with who you really are.
Thus, you begin to abandon your real self.
The result is an incongruence between the Organismic Self and the Self as Perceived.
The self structure you develop is usually defended at all cost against input that fits with the Organismic Self (problem!).
However, there is a drive to become who you are.

73. Once you identify your healthy and unhealthy self, you tend to shift to a more healthy behavior.
The goal is to become a Fully Functioning Person.
> Open to experience; little need to be defensive
> Live in a truly existential manner; lives in the here and now
(not carrying emotional baggage from the past)
> Trusts feelings for what is right.

74. Characteristics of Effective Therapists
Must be genuine in the relationship and with his/her communication.
Must be capable of empathic understanding.
Must demonstrate unconditional positive regard (non-judgmental respect & caring).
Must be congruent; the self as projected, the self as experienced, and the organismic self are all one piece
(You present a healthy model to the patient.)
5. Must be transparent in the relationship.
(less guarded in responses & willing to self-disclose)

75. Patients who benefited the most from therapy had therapists who exhibited the five characteristics.
Characteristics of the therapist were more important than the technique of therapy used to help the patient.

76. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)

77. Hierarchy of Needs

78. Existential Psychology
Everyone has a need to exist in the world into which s/he was born and to develop a sense of self.
Ontological Anxiety: fear of not being (death)
[We spend much time running away from this awareness, and this keeps us from living fully.]
Result: an inability to relate fully to other people
Existential Crisis: we will never do everything that we want to do before we die.

79. Major Characteristic of Existentialism
Intentionality: we have to give meaning to everything, so our intentions for the future provide us with a forward thrust.
(What choices/decisions have we made?)
Choice is inevitable; your life is defined by the choices you make.
You have to take responsibility for your own existence.

80. Erick Fromm wrote “Escape from Freedom.”
We escape from freedom.
We prefer a deterministic universe.
Why?
It allows us to give up responsibility for our own existence.
{It is just fate. It is all God’s plan. You made me love you. The teacher gave me a bad grade. etc.}

81. Social-Cognitive Theory
(Social Learning Theory)
Observational Learning is at the heart of social cognitive theory.
People respond to vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment.
Emotional responses can be learned vicariously.
Models are attended to more if they are seen as similar to oneself, are respected, are considered powerful, or are attractive.

82. However, learning will not be translated into performance unless there is an incentive to do so. Observational learning may create potentially effective behavior-outcome expectations. S-C theory equates personality with behavior.

83. (also includes gender, social position, size, & attractiveness)
Albert Bandura
Reciprocal Determinism - personality evolves as a result of the continuous interaction among situation variables, person variables, and behavior.
- Situation variables provide the setting in which a person behaves.
- Person variables determine how a situation is analyzed and which behaviors are chosen.
(also includes gender, social position, size, & attractiveness)
- Behavior both provides information concerning the person's analysis of the situation and modifies the environment.
*People activate different environmental reactions, apart from their behavior, by their physical characteristics and social status.

84. One implication of reciprocal determinism is that people's beliefs about themselves (perceived self-efficacy) and the world will influence both how they behave and the environment in which they place themselves. In turn, feedback from behavior and environmental experience will confirm or disconfirm people's beliefs.

85. 1. Encoding strategies: how we see/perceive things
Walter Mischel
How a given individual will interact with a situation is determined by five cognitive social person variables.
- These variables determine which of the many stimuli a person confronts are perceived, selected, interpreted, and used.
1. Encoding strategies: how we see/perceive things
> These determine what aspects of the world are attended to and how they are interpreted.
These can be changed by the individual at any time.
(Hot weather may be pleasant at one time and
irritating at another).

86. 2. Expectancies: what we think will happen
> These answer the questions, “What should I expect if I act in a certain way?”
“If I see one thing, what should I expect to see next?” and
“Am I capable of doing what I think needs to be done?”
3. Subjective Values: what is worth having or doing?
> Even if a person has a strong behavior-outcome expectancy and a strong self-efficacy expectance, he or she may not decide to translate those expectancies into behavior because what would be gained simply is not worth the effort.

87. 4. Self-regulatory systems and plans: how do we attain our goals?
> Human behavior is largely self-regulated; thus, behavior is influenced more by intrinsic (internal) reinforcement and punishment than it is by extrinsic (external) reinforcement and punishment.
5. Competencies: what we know and are capable of doing
> People develop skills, concepts, and problem-solving strategies that are actively used in dealing with the environment.

88. Julian Rotter
Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is determined by cognitive expectation -- what a person expects to happen following behavior and the value the person places on the outcome. 
Rotter developed a test that measures the degree to which people expect events to be controlled by their own internal efforts or by external forces over which they have no influence.

89. Perceived Control
Researchers have found that the actual degree of control in a situation is not as important as the perception of control.
Much of the physical and mental deterioration observed among elderly people in nursing homes may be the result of loss of control. When the environment was changed to facilitate perceptions of control for certain residents of a nursing home, they became more alert and happy, and they felt better than a comparison group for whom no changes had been made. Also, internals are more likely to work to stay healthy than externals.