1. Note that the following lectures include animations and PowerPoint effects such as fly ins and transitions that require you to be in PowerPoint's Slide Show mode (presentation mode).

2. Chapter 8
The Sun

3. Guidepost
The preceding chapter described how we can get information from a spectrum. In this chapter, we apply these techniques to the sun, to learn about its complexities.
This chapter gives us our first close look at how scientists work, how they use evidence and hypothesis to understand nature. Here we will follow carefully developed logical arguments to understand our sun.
Most important, this chapter gives us our first detailed look at a star. The chapters that follow will discuss the many kinds of stars that fill the heavens, but this chapter shows us that each of them is both complex and beautiful; each is a sun.

4. Outline I. The Solar Atmosphere A. Heat Flow in the Sun
I. The Solar Atmosphere
A. Heat Flow in the Sun
B. The Photosphere
C. The Chromosphere
D. The Solar Corona
E. Helioseismology
II. Nuclear Fusion in the Sun
A. Nuclear Binding Energy
B. Hydrogen Fusion
C. Energy Transport in the Sun
D. The Solar Neutrino Problem

5. Outline (continued) III. Solar Activity A. Observing the Sun
III. Solar Activity
A. Observing the Sun
B. Sunspots and Active Regions
C. The Sunspot Cycle
D. The Sun's Magnetic Cycle
E. Spots and Magnetic Cycles on Other Stars
E. Chromospheric and Coronal Activity
F. The Solar Constant

6. General Properties
Stars (like our sun) are great balls of gas held together by their own gravity.
Why does their gravity not make them collapse into small dense bodies?
Because of their high internal pressure, why do they not explode?
Simple structures balanced between opposing forces that individually would destroy them!
How does our sun affect life on Earth?
Average star
Spectral type G2
Only appears so bright because it is so close.
Absolute visual magnitude = 4.83 (magnitude if it were at a distance of 32.6 light years)
109 times Earth’s diameter
333,000 times Earth’s mass
Consists entirely of gas (av. density = 1.4 g/cm3)
Central temperature = 15 million 0K
Surface temperature = K

7. Very Important Warning:
Never look directly at the sun through a telescope or binoculars!!!
This can cause permanent eye damage – even blindness.
Use a projection technique or a special sun viewing filter.

8. General Properties Average star Spectral type G2
Average star
Spectral type G2
Only appears so bright because it is so close.
Absolute visual magnitude = 4.83 (magnitude if it were at a distance of 32.6 light years)
109 times Earth’s diameter
333,000 times Earth’s mass
Consists entirely of gas (av. density = 1.4 g/cm3)
Central temperature = 15 million 0K (almost 27 million F)
Surface temperature = K

9. The Solar Atmosphere Only visible during solar eclipses
Only visible during solar eclipses
Apparent surface of the sun
Heat Flow
Temp. incr. inward
Solar interior

10. The Photosphere Apparent surface layer of the sun
Apparent surface layer of the sun
Depth ≈ 500 km ( miles)
Temperature ≈ 5800 oK ( F)
Highly opaque (H- ions absorb photons))
Absorbs and re-emits radiation produced in the solar interior
The solar corona

11. The Photosphere gas marked by sunspots
gas marked by sunspots
Thin layer of gases (tissue covering a bowling ball)
Gas from outer layers to core
Emits the visible portion of light
Less dense than the air you breathe

12. Layers of the sun

13. Energy Transport in the Photosphere
Energy generated in the sun’s center must be transported outward.
Near the photosphere, this happens through
(energy is flowing upward through the photosphere)
Convection:
Cool gas sinking down
Bubbles of hot gas rising up
≈ 1000 km
Bubbles last for ≈ 10 – 20 min.

14. Granulation … is the visible consequence of convection
… is the visible consequence of convection
Each one is about the size of Texas!
Last for minutes

15. Chromospheric structures visible in Ha emission (filtergram)
The Chromosphere
Region of sun’s atmosphere just above the photosphere.
Visible, UV, and X-ray lines from highly ionized gases
Temperature increases gradually from ≈ 4500 oK to ≈ 10,000 oK (17,540.33°F), then jumps to 1 million oK (1,799, F)
Filaments
Transition region
Chromospheric structures visible in Ha emission (filtergram)

16. The Chromosphere
Lies just above the visible surface of the sun and blends with the corona
1000X more faint than the photosphere
Thin line of pink during a solar eclipse
Low density ionized gas
Transition region----temperature rises fast form K to 1,000,000 K
Using H alpha filter grams (pictures using a certain dark absorption line of light) shows filaments and spicules lasting from 5 to 15 minutes (flame like jets of cooler gas)

17. Each one lasting about 5 – 15 min.
The Chromosphere (2)
Spicules: Filaments of cooler gas from the photosphere, rising up into the chromosphere.
Visible in Ha emission.
Each one lasting about 5 – 15 min.

18. The Layers of the Solar Atmosphere
Ultraviolet
Visible
Sun Spot Regions
Photosphere
Corona
Chromosphere
Coronal activity, seen in visible light

19. Corona Outermost part of the sun’s atmosphere (Greek for crown)
Outermost part of the sun’s atmosphere (Greek for crown)
Dim, not visible, can be seen during a solar eclipse
Coronagraphs- specialized telescopes
Magnetic field links the sunspots with features in the chromosphere and corona
Light is reflected off of dust particles
SOHO satellite has mapped a magnetic carpet, accounting for the increase in heat
Solar wind—gases flow away from the sun due to the magnetic fields pointing outward
the sun is losing mass----but will last for billions of years

20. The Magnetic Carpet of the Corona
Corona contains very low-density, very hot (1 million oK) gas
Coronal gas is heated through motions of magnetic fields anchored in the photosphere below (“magnetic carpet”)
Computer model of the magnetic carpet

21. The Solar Wind Constant flow of gas particles from the sun.
Constant flow of gas particles from the sun.
Velocity ≈ 300 – 800 km/s (671,000 m/hr- 1,789,500 m/hr)
Sun is constantly losing mass:
107 tons/year
(≈ of its mass per year)

22. Approx. 10 million wave patterns!
Helioseismology
The solar interior is opaque (i.e. it absorbs light) out to the photosphere.
Only way to investigate solar interior is through Helioseismology
= analysis of vibration patterns visible on the solar surface:
Approx. 10 million wave patterns!

23. Helioseismology
Detect rumblings in the sun using Doppler shifts in the solar surface
Information comes from SOHO and GONG (Global Oscillation Network Group) a network of telescopes around the world
Similar to a geologists studying the interior of the Earth using vibrations
Using wavelengths of the vibrations, astronomers can determine: temperature, density, pressure, composition, and motion at different depths
Reveals the rotation of the sun, and sunspots before they reach the surface

24. How does it work? How does the sun work? What is it’s Fuel?
How does the sun work?
What is it’s Fuel?
How does it burn fuel?
How does the heat travel?
Light?
Temperature?
Solar winds? Solar flares?
Will it ever burn out?

25. Energy generation in the sun (and all other stars):
Energy Production
Energy generation in the sun (and all other stars):
Binding energy due to strong force = on short range, strongest of the 4 known forces: electromagnetic, weak, strong, gravitational
Nuclear Fusion
= fusing together 2 or more lighter nuclei to produce heavier ones.
Nuclear fusion can produce energy up to the production of iron;
For elements heavier than iron, energy is gained by nuclear fission.

26. Energy Generation in the Sun: The Proton-Proton Chain
Basic reaction:
4 1H  4He + energy
Need large proton speed ( high temperature) to overcome Coulomb barrier (electrostatic repulsion between protons).
4 protons have 0.048*10-27 kg (= 0.7 %) more mass than 4He.
T ≥ 107 0K = 10 million 0K
Energy gain = Dm*c2
= 0.43*10-11 J
per reaction.
Sun needs 1038 reactions, transforming 5 million tons of mass into energy every second, to resist its own gravity.

27. The Solar Neutrino Problem
The solar interior can not be observed directly because it is highly opaque to radiation.
But neutrinos can penetrate huge amounts of material without being absorbed.
Early solar neutrino experiments detected a much lower flux of neutrinos than expected ( the “solar neutrino problem”).
Recent results have proven that neutrinos change (“oscillate”) between different types (“flavors”), thus solving the solar neutrino problem.
Sudbury neutrino observatory

28. Sun Spots; weather on the sun is magnetic
Sun Spots; weather on the sun is magnetic
Cooler regions of the photosphere (T ≈ 4240 K).
Only appear dark against the bright sun. Would still be brighter than the full moon when placed on the night sky!

29. Sun Spots (2)
Active Regions
Visible
Ultraviolet

30. The Active Sun
Solar Activity, seen in soft X-rays

31. Magnetic Fields in Sun Spots
Magnetic fields on the photosphere can be measured through the Zeeman effect on a spectrograph
 Sun Spots are related to magnetic activity on the photosphere

32. Sun Spots (3)
Magnetic field in sun spots is about 1000 times stronger than Earth’s.
Magnetic North Poles
Magnetic South Poles
In sun spots, magnetic field lines emerge out of the photosphere.

33. Magnetic Field Lines Magnetic North Pole Magnetic South Pole
Magnetic North Pole
Magnetic South Pole
Magnetic Field Lines

34. Reversal of magnetic polarity
The Solar Cycle
After 11 years, North/South order of leading/trailing sun spots is reversed
11-year cycle
Reversal of magnetic polarity
=> Total solar magnetic cycle = 22 years

35. Maunder Butterfly Diagram
The Solar Cycle (2)
Maunder Butterfly Diagram
Sun spot cycle starts out with spots at higher latitudes on the sun
Evolve to lower latitudes (towards the equator) throughout the cycle.

36. The sun spot number also fluctuates on much longer time scales:
The Maunder Minimum
The sun spot number also fluctuates on much longer time scales:
Historical data indicate a very quiet phase of the sun, ~ 1650 – 1700: The Maunder Minimum

37. Rotation
Differential rotation: our gaseous sun is divided into different zones and layers, with each of our host star's regions moving at varying speeds. On average, the sun rotates on its axis once every 27 days. However, its equator spins the fastest and takes about 24 days to rotate, while the poles take more than 30 days. The inner parts of the sun also spin faster than the outer layers, according to NASA.

38. The Sun’s Magnetic Dynamo
The sun rotates faster at the equator than near the poles.
This differential rotation might be responsible for magnetic activity of the sun.

39. Magnetic Loops
Magnetic field lines

40. The Sun’s Magnetic Cycle
After 11 years, the magnetic field pattern becomes so complex that the field structure is re-arranged.
 New magnetic field structure is similar to the original one, but reversed!
 New 11-year cycle starts with reversed magnetic-field orientation

41. Image constructed from changing Doppler shift measurements
Star Spots?
Other stars might also have sun spot activity:
Image constructed from changing Doppler shift measurements

42. Magnetic Cycles on Other Stars
H and K line emission of ionized Calcium indicate magnetic activity also on other stars.

43. Relatively cool gas (60,000 – 80,000 oK)
Prominences
Relatively cool gas (60,000 – 80,000 oK)
May be seen as dark filaments against the bright background of the photosphere
Looped Prominences: gas ejected from the sun’s photosphere, flowing along magnetic loops

44. Eruptive Prominences (Ultraviolet images)
(Ultraviolet images)
Extreme events (solar flares) can significantly influence Earth’s magnetic field structure and cause northern lights (aurora borealis).

45. Coronal mass ejections
Space Weather
~ 5 minutes
Solar Aurora
Sound waves produced by a solar flare
Coronal mass ejections

46. Coronal Holes X-ray images of the sun reveal coronal holes.
X-ray images of the sun reveal coronal holes.
These arise at the foot points of open field lines and are the origin of the solar wind.

47. The energy we receive from the sun is essential for all life on Earth.
The Solar Constant
The energy we receive from the sun is essential for all life on Earth.
The amount of energy we receive from the sun can be expressed as the Solar Constant:
Energy Flux
F = 1360 J/m2/s
F = Energy Flux =
= Energy received in the form of radiation, per unit time and per unit surface area [J/s/m2];