1. Rhetorical Strategies: The backbone of persuasion

2. Definitions of Rhetoric
Aristotle: Rhetoric is "the faculty of discovering in any particular case all of the available means of persuasion.”
Cicero: Rhetoric is "speech designed to persuade."
Our definition: “Rhetoric is any speaking or writing that is persuasive in nature and may contain specific language devices used to argue one’s points more effectively.”

3. Questions to consider when reading any text – what is being expressed and how?
CONTENT – WHAT
What is the purpose of the text?
What questions/topics does the text address?
Who is the intended audience? (look at publication/date)
What are the author’s basic values, beliefs, and assumptions? (you may know them or know from reading their work, or you may have to look it up)
METHOD – HOW
How does the author support his/her thesis with reason and evidence? (What views and counterarguments or counterevidence are included? Which are omitted?) → logic (logos)
How does the author make himself seem credible to the intended audience? How does the author refer to general ethics and morals? → ethics (ethos) *good writing contributes to ethos
How does the author make the argument emotionally compelling? → emotions (pathos)

4. Rhetorical Devices Rhetorical devices used include:
Charged words (type of diction)
Restatement
Repetition
Rhetorical questions/hypophora
Aphorisms
Allusions
Analogy
Parallel structure
Antithesis
*We will now explore all these using examples from “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”.

5. Quick differentiation
“Strategies” is a broad term
It includes both rhetorical appeals/modes of persuasion (logos, ethos, and pathos) AND more specific devices that are used to manipulate language (such as repetition and allusion).
The relationship is that devices help to create rhetorical appeals. For example, if you want to tap into a reader’s pathos, you might use charged words (to be explained in a moment). The device is the tool used to create the appeal.

6. Device: Charged Words
Charged words (a type of diction) are those producing an emotional response.
“The world of misery...” (p. 108, para 1)
“The God that holds you over the pit of Hell abhors you…” (p. 110, para 2).
“You are ten thousand times more abominable in His eyes…” (p. 110, para 2)

7. Device: Repetition
Repetition is the direct repetition of words or phrases, often added for emphasis, to establish tone, and convey perspective.
There are some words that are repeated frequently in “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”→ why? How would you describe the author’s tone as a result?
Wrath
Destruction
Dreadful
Hell
Sovereign
Omnipotent

8. Device: Restatement
Restatement is repeating an idea in a variety of ways. Consider the various ways Jonathan Edwards makes statements about God’s wrath:
“The wrath of God is like great waters and are dammed for the present; they increase more and more…” (p. 109, para 2).
“The bow of God’s wrath is bent, and the arrow made ready on the string, and justice bends the arrow at your heart…” (p. 109, para 3).

9. Devices: Rhetorical Questions/Hypophora
Rhetorical questions are those whose answers are self-evident, used to introduce a shared logic or code of ethics.
“How dreadful is the state of those that are daily and hourly in the danger of this great wrath and infinite misery!” (p. 111, para 4)
Hypophora is when a question is asked and immediately answered, used to engage the audience and then share a specific point:
“How awful is it to be left behind at such a day! To see so many others feasting, while you are pining and perishing! To see so many rejoicing and singing for joy and heart, while you have cause to mourn for sorrow of heart, and howl for vexation of spirit!” (p. 112, para 1)

10. Devices: Aphorism & Allusion
Aphorisms are concise statements expressing a wise observation, often about morality.
Not from “Sinners”: “If you can’t say anything nice, don’t say anything at all.”
“God stands ready to pity you” (p. 110, para 5)
Allusions are references to other well-known works, people, etc. in order to facilitate comparison, provide examples of an idea, etc. (they can be direct or indirect)
“The wrath of Almighty God is now undoubtedly hanging over a great part of this congregation: let everyone fly out of Sodom. “Hate and escape for your lives, look not behind you, escape to the mountain, lest you be consumed” (p para 2).

11. Device: Analogy
In rhetoric, analogies are reasoning or explaining from parallel cases. They are also known as extended metaphors.
“The wrath of God is like great waters that are dammed for the present; they increase more and more, and rise higher and higher, till an outlet is given… your guilt in the meantime is constantly increasing, and you are every day treasuring up more wrath…” (p. 109, para 2)
Why does Edwards use so many analogies that are images of natural disasters?

12. Device: Parallelism
Parallelism or parallel structure is the use of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences that are similar in structure. It helps to create a logical construction of ideas while also swaying people emotionally when they hear the rhythm of the words.
“...You have...nothing to lay hold of you save yourself, nothing to keep off the flames of wrath, nothing of your own, nothing that you ever have done…” (p. 110, para 4).

13. Device: Antithesis
Antithesis is the juxtaposition of opposing ideas in balanced phrases or clauses; thus, a mixture of juxtaposition and parallelism.
“To see so many rejoicing and singing for joy of heart, while you have cause to mourn for sorrow of heart…” (p. 112, para 1). [this is part of the larger hypophora example]