1. Chapter 14 Designing Qualitative Research
Variety of methodologies
Researcher is primary data collection instrument
Participation and observation are integrated
Focuses on specific interactants in specific communication contexts and events

2. Researcher’s Role in Qualitative Methodologies
Role of researcher is integrated within the context of individuals being observed
In the research context for extended periods of time
Observes the communication firsthand

3. Forms of Participant Observation
Complete participant
Participant-as-observer
Observer-as-participant
Complete observer

4. Identifying the Research Focus
Is the research question personally interesting or compelling?
Should be contextually bound
Each project will result in a unique design solution
Develop a purpose statement as a road map
Consider researcher’s flexibility to fit in

5. Consulting the Literature
Become familiar with content literature
Terminology or practices in this setting
Theories that can be supported or refuted
Become familiar with research which used the method you’re planning to use
Become familiar with research techniques before gaining access

6. Asking or Stating the Research Objective
Qualitative tends to emphasize description and explanation
More common
Research question or series of questions
Research purpose or objective
Connected to context studied

7. Sampling in Qualitative Studies
Snowball sampling
Ask participants for referrals
Network sampling
Seek individuals who fit profile
Purposive sampling
Seek individuals who meet criteria
Maximum variation sampling
Seek participants until data are redundant

8. Sampling Qualitative Data
Impossible to observe every interaction of all interactants
Determine the sample by identifying settings, persons, activities, events, and time
Distinguish between routine, special, and untoward events
Randomly selecting days and times increases the representativeness of your observations

9. Gaining Access Consider
What would you tell the people you approach that you wanted to study?
What if they asked why you want to study them?
Always consider alternative ways of gaining access
Researcher can still invade personal space or private conversations in public settings

10. Gaining Access
If you take on a covert role, your acceptance by others depends on your ability to play the part
Consider a gatekeeper or sponsor
Will your observations provide the data you need?
Is the setting suitable?
Can you observe what you want to observe?
Will your observations be feasible?
Can you observe in such a way that you are not suspect to others?

11. Becoming Familiar with People and Places
Draw a map of the interaction setting
Take a tour
Ask for relevant background

12. Developing Trust
Trust must be addressed due to researcher’s intimate role with participants
Must be addressed in first contact
Trust is person-specific
Trust is established over time
Trust can be destroyed with one event
Trust between researchers and participants is paramount

13. Developing Rapport Ask simple questions
Maintain positive conversation posture
Learn names and titles
Perform commitment acts
Locate key informants

14. Collecting Qualitative Data
Observing is purposeful not accidental
Be aware of the interdependence among people observed, their social situation, and the context
Observe for prolonged periods of time
Observation strategies
Seamless container
Ask questions
Write descriptive then analytical notes

15. Field Notes
Field notes – created on the spot; a sequential record of what was observed
Read through and reflect immediately after leaving the scene
Jot down additional detail or questions
Number and date each page
Take lots of notes – more than you believe are necessary

16. Audio or Videotaping Depends on the situation and researcher role
Some people are uncomfortable with recording devices
Even the best recordings cannot capture the full spectrum of nonverbal behavior
Recording devices can fail
Ethically maintain the recordings – they cannot be played for others or circulated

17. If You Can’t Take Notes
Retreat to a setting away from the interaction scene
Take frequent breaks so you don’t overload your memory
After leaving the interaction setting, review the notes you made – add detail and ask questions

18. What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research?
The concept of data is broadly cast in qualitative research – ranges from public to private
More continuous than discrete
Field notes
Recordings
Written or electronic documents
Photographs or maps
Artifacts

19. Your Impact as a Researcher
Your sex, age, and ethnicity affect what you observe and how you observe it
Report similarities and differences that you believe affected data collection or interpretation
Research teams should be diverse
Males and females
Age
Ethnic, racial, or cultural groups

20. Credibility as the Criterion
Credibility may replace reliability and validity
Plan for and carry out the research so that findings are believable to others
Use respondent validation
Participants can correct errors
Participants can challenge interpretations
Participants can provide their perspective