1. 6.4 Gas exchange
Essential idea: The lungs are actively ventilated to ensure that gas exchange can occur passively.
Two processes maintain the concentration gradients between the blood and the alveolar air to ensure that diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide can occur: firstly circulation of the blood brings a constant supply of high carbon dioxide, deoxygenated blood to the alveoli. Secondly the diaphragm (micrograph image) and intercostal muscles constantly increase and decrease the volume of the lungs to cause ventilation to occur, this is turn ensures a supply of high oxygen, low carbon dioxide air to the alveoli. The muscles cause the lungs to increase and decrease in volume by contractions. You can clearly see the striations in the diaphragm muscle tissue above. The striations help the muscle tissue to contract and relax.

2. Review your Chapter 42 Reading Guide

3. Understandings Statement Guidance 6.4.U1
Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries.
6.4.U2
Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange.
6.4.U3
Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension.
6.4.U4
Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles.
Students should be able to draw a diagram to show the structure of an alveolus and an adjacent capillary.
6.4.U5
Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them.
6.4.U6
Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract.

4. Applications and Skills
Statement
Guidance
6.4.A1
Causes and consequences of lung cancer.
6.4.A2
Causes and consequences of emphysema.
6.4.A3
External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic muscle action.
6.4.S1
Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous exercise. (Practical 6)
Ventilation can either be monitored by simple observation and simple apparatus or by data logging with a spirometer or chest belt and pressure meter. Ventilation rate and tidal volume should be measured, but the terms vital capacity and residual volume are not expected.

7. Why do we need a ventilation system?
We are large organisms. Oxygen cannot diffuse into all our
cells directly from the air, nor can waste products be directly
ejected from the body. We have specialized organ systems,
which are efficient, but need delivery of nutrients and
removal of waste. The ventilation system ensures the blood
can be the medium for this.
We are land-borne. Gases need moist surfaces (membranes) in
order to diffuse. Our lungs are moist membranes, allowing
oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide
to diffuse out.
The ventilation system maintains a large
concentration gradient between the alveoli and
the blood. The constant flow of past the alveoli brings
blood with a high CO2 concentration and low O2
concentration. Breathing out keeps the CO2 concentration
in the alveoli low, so it diffuses out of the blood.
Breathing in keeps O2 concentration in the alveoli high,
so it diffuses into the blood.
Diagram from:

9. 6.4.U1 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries.
If the alveoli were not ventilated, equilibrium would be reached and not gas would be exchanged.

10. Explain the need for a ventilation system.
A ventilation system is needed to maintain the concentration gradients of gases in the alveoli. Diffusion of gases occurs due to the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration and needs to take in oxygen as it is needed for cell respiration to make ATP. There must be a low concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli so that carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the blood in the capillaries and into the alveoli. Also there must be a high concentration of oxygen in the in the alveoli so that oxygen can diffuse into the blood in the capillaries from the alveoli. The ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen.
Summary:
To maintain the concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. 
The body needs oxygen to make ATP via cell respiration. The electron acceptor the in electron transport chain.
The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration.
Oxygen needs to diffuse from the alveoli into the blood. Carbon dioxide needs to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli.
To do so there must be a high oxygen concentration and a low carbon dioxide concentration in the alveoli. 
A ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen.

11. 6.4.U4 Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles.
Can you use the diagram to produce a flow chart to show the passage of air into the lungs?

12. Here is a good image of the alveoli and how the make up the lung tissue

13. Here is another good image of the alveoli and how the make up the lung tissue.

14. Here is a good image of the alveoli (although this is not longer ‘living’ tissue)

16. Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.
Even though alveoli are so small there are huge numbers of them which results in a large surface area for gas exchange. Also the wall of the alveoli is made up of a single layer of thin cells and so are the capillaries, this creates a short diffusion distance for the gases. Therefore this allows rapid gas exchange. The alveoli are covered by a dense network of blood capillaries which have a low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood. Finally, there are cells in the alveolar walls which secrete a fluid that keeps the inner surface of the alveoli moist, allowing gases to dissolve. This fluid also contains a natural detergent that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together. 
Summary: 
Great numbers increase the surface area for gas exchange.
Wall made up of single layer of cells and so are the walls of the capillaries so diffusion distance is small allowing rapid gas exchange. 
Covered by a dense network of capillaries which have low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood.  
Some cells in the walls secrete fluid allowing gases to dissolve. Fluid also prevents the sides of alveoli from sticking together.

17. Alveoli
Alveoli are the tiny air sacs (only 1 cell thick) in the lungs at the end of the smallest airways, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
The average human has nearly 300 million alveoli to absorb oxygen from the air.

18. Adaptations of alveoli
Advantage
Spherical shape of alveoli
Provides a large surface area for respiratory gases to diffuse through
Flattened single cell thickness of each alveolus
Prevents respiratory gases from having to diffuse through more cell layers
Moist inner lining of alveolus
Allow for efficient diffusion
Associated capillary bed nearby
Respiratory gases do not have to diffuse far to reach single cell thick capillaries

19. Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
6.4.A3 External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic muscle action. AND 6.4.U5 Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them.
Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
Inspiration/Inhalation
Expiration/exhalation
pressure change
decrease in pressure
(draws air inwards)
increase in pressure
(pushes air outwards)
volume change
increase
decrease
ribcage movement
up and outward
down and inward
external intercostal muscles
contract
relax
internal intercostal muscles
diaphragm
(flattens, moves downwards)
abdominal muscles
(pushes the diaphragm up)
diagrams
causes
causes

20. Here is a good image of the diaphragm

21. Here is another good image of the diaphragm

23. Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
6.4.A3 External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic muscle action. AND 6.4.U5 Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them.
Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
Inspiration
Expiration
pressure change
decrease in pressure
(draws air inwards)
increase in pressure
(pushes air outwards)
volume change
increase
decrease
ribcage movement
up and outward
down and inward
external intercostal muscles
contract
relax
internal intercostal muscles
diaphragm
(flattens, moves downwards)
abdominal muscles
(pushes the diaphragm up)
diagrams
causes
causes
causes
6.4.U6 Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract.
The external and internal intercostal muscles work together antagonistically. The diaphragm and abdominal muscles are also antagonistic to each other. Antagonist muscles oppose a specific movement to help to control a motion. Antagonistic muscles occur often in pairs where one muscle contracts whilst the other relaxes, the second muscle group causes movement in the opposite direction of the other. This is needed as relaxation is a passive process, relaxing of a muscle group is aided by the contraction of the other.

25. How many membranes must an oxygen molecule pass through in order to get to an erythrocyte (red blood cell)?
A single molecule of oxygen (O2) needs to pass through these things to get to the red blood cell (RBC) 1. Alveolar Cells 2. Capillary wall. Consider the fact that O2 molecules need go into and out of the alveolar cell. So that means it will pass the cell surface membrane TWICE After O2 goes out of that cell, it needs to diffuse through the capillary wall. Remember that the capillary wall is one cell thick so the O2 needs to diffuse into and then out of the cell. So that means that it again passes the cell surface membrane TWICE The last cell surface membrane would be the membrane of the RBC. So everything will total up to 5 membranes that an O2 must pass. Summary 1. into alveolar cell (through 1 membrane) 2. out of alveolar cell (through 1 membrane) 3. into capillary wall (through 1 membrane) 4. out of capillary wall (through 1 membrane) 5. into RBC (through 1 membrane)
Total 5 membranes

26. I stole this from the internet…but It’s the best one I could find.

28. Micrograph of the lungs – what structures can you identify?
Name this structure
Identify this cell type

29. Micrograph of the lungs – what structures can you identify?
capillary
erythrocytes
(Red blood cells)

30. Alveoli walls and gas exchange
6.4.U2 Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. AND 6.4.U3 Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension.
Alveoli walls and gas exchange
Connective
tissue
Type I pneumocytes
A Single layer of cells form the walls of an alveolus
Extremely thin – short diffusion distance
Permeable – aids diffusion
Type II pneumocytes
Secrete fluid to moisten the inner surface of the alveolus
Fluid aids diffusion of gases
Fluid contains surfactant to prevent the walls sticking together – maintains the lumen
Can divide to form Type I pneumocytes – repair damage
Edited from:

31. Emphysema This all explains the lower surface area to volume ratio
6.4.A2 Causes and consequences of emphysema.
Emphysema
Causes
The main cause of emphysema is smoking but it can also develop in people with a long history of chest infections. emphysema can also be caused by air pollution. Chemical fumes and dust can also cause emphysema. All of which cause an inflammatory response in the lungs.
Effects--
Protease is released by leukocytes (white blood cells) and inflamed lung tissue. The protease breaks down the connective tissue, such as elastin) of the lungs. This results in the destruction of small airways and alveoli. This results in the formation of large air pockets and the breakdown of capillaries.
This all explains the lower
surface area to volume ratio
Consequently large air pockets have a much lower surface area to volume ratio than the alveoli which causes insufficient ventilation. When combined with the reduced blood supply this in turn means inefficient gas exchange and hence low blood oxygen levels.
Symptoms include:
Difficulty breathing
Cough
Loss of appetite
Weight loss
Emphysema is not curable, but there are treatments that can help you manage the disease

32. most common types of cancer
Review: 1.6.U6 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary tumours.
Tumours are abnormal growth of tissue that develop at any stage of life in any part of the body. A cancer is a malignant tumour and is named after the part of the body where the cancer (primary tumour) first develops. Use the links to find out:
most common types of cancer
what causes cancer and associated risk factors
how cancer can be treated
What causes cancer?

33. “Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer in the U.S.”
6.4.A1 Causes and consequences of lung cancer.
“Lung cancer is the leading cause of death from cancer in the U.S.”
Lung cancer is cancer that starts in the windpipe (trachea), the main airway (bronchus) or the lung tissue.
By far the biggest cause of lung cancer is smoking. It causes more than 8 out of 10 cases (86%) including a small proportion caused by exposure to second hand smoke in non smokers (passive smoking).
Some other things increase lung cancer risk by a small amount:
Exposure to radon (a radioactive) gas
Air pollution
Previous lung disease
A family history of lung cancer
Past cancer treatment
Previous smoking related cancers
Lowered immunity
Like most cancers lung cancer, if untreated, will end with death. Because detection of lung cancer is difficult it is often only diagnosed in the later stages. As a consequence only 10% of those diagnosed will survive for 5 years.
The symptoms of lung cancer may include:
Being short of breath
Having a cough most of the time
Coughing up phlegm with blood
An ache or pain in the chest or shoulder
Loss of appetite
Tiredness/fatigue
Losing weight
Source:

34. Nature of science: Obtain evidence for theories - epidemiological studies have contributed to our understanding of the causes of lung cancer. (1.8)
“Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events (including disease), and the application of this study to the control of diseases and other health problems.”
Surveillance/observation and descriptive studies can be used to study distribution.
However analytical (statistical) studies are used to study causes.
There are however limitations to epidemiology as an identified correlation does not always indicate causation:
“overweight and obesity are protective factors against lung cancer, especially in current and former smokers”
Nicotine in tobacco suppresses appetite
Vs.
Until lab studies indicate a link it is possible that weight is negatively correlated with tobacco intake.

35. Monitoring ventilation
6.4.S1 Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous exercise. (Practical 6)
Monitoring ventilation
: design an investigation, collect and analyse the data
Independent variable: the intensity of exercise
What type of exercise? For how long? How will you make sure that individuals exercise similarly?
Dependent variable: What measure(s) are you using for ventilation?
Data analysis: you should be calculating a rate. For example the count of breaths or tidal volume per unit time (s or min)
Frequency of breaths? Spirometer data showing tidal volumes?
Ethical and safety concerns: how are you making sure that the experiment is safe? Are participants aware of the risks? Are you seeking written permission from participants?
Controlled variables: what are the key factors that need to be measured and kept constant to ensure a fair test?

36. Questions that relate to our lab!!!
Explain the effect of exercise on ventilation rate.
rise in carbon dioxide level in the blood;
this lowers the pH of the blood;
detected by chemoreceptors in the walls of the arteries;
impulses sent to the breathing center of the brain;
impulses sent to the intercostal muscles / diaphragm;
ventilation rate increases;
Outline why heavy breathing continues after strenuous exercise is completed.
during heavy exercise the muscles respire anaerobically;
lactate / lactic acid is produced / an oxygen debt occurs;
heavy breathing to provide oxygen to break down lactate / lactic acid / repay debt;

37. Bibliography / Acknowledgments
Bob Smullen
Chris Paine