1. Ecological Restoration
Note: Take the book to class!
The “Once-ler,” Dr. Seuss’s personification of industry, arrives in the land of the Lorax and cuts down the “Truffula Trees” to make “thneeds,” which “everyone needs.” The ensuing degradation drives out most of the creatures and dramatically changes the landscape. In the end… see the last slide.
See (and potentially assign students to read): Emma Marris’ retrospective review of “The Lorax” in Nature – 2011.
[MarrisE_2011_Nature_TheLorax.pdf]
Image from Wikimedia Commons

2. Ecological Restoration
George Perkins Marsh
(1801 – 1882)
Man & Nature (1864)
Contemporaneous with
Romantic-Transcendalists
(e.g., Emerson, Muir, Thoreau)
A contemporary of some of the Romantic-Transcendentalists we discussed in Lecture 1.
From Sharon Kingsland’s (2005) book (pg. 8):
Marsh (1864) Man & Nature
Marsh’s “key insight” – humans have to restore what humans have disturbed
So, this stuff is not new!
Marsh’s “key insight” –
anthropogenic imbalances in Nature
“did not correct themselves automatically…
Humans had to restore what humans had disturbed.”
Photo of Marsh (U.S. diplomat & philologist) from Wikimedia Commons; Quote from S. Kingsland (2005)

3. Ecological Restoration
Aldo Leopold (1887 – 1948)
A Sand County Almanac (1949)
Milestone for plant community restoration –
Leopold & colleagues restored ~120 ha
of forest & prairie at U. Wisconsin Arboretum;
1930s
Photo from Oregon State University

4. Ecological Restoration
Jared Diamond
(b. 1937)
Collapse (2005)
See final paragraph of Collapse: “My remaining cause for hope… we have the opportunity to learn from the mistakes of distant peoples and past peoples. That’s an opportunity that no past society enjoyed to such a degree…”
Human history is replete with examples of over-exploitation
& habitat destruction without restoration that resulted in
societal collapse (i.e., societies that were not
operating sustainably)
Photo of Diamond from Wikimedia Commons; image of book jacket from amazon.com

5. Ecological Restoration
Jared Diamond
(b. 1937)
Collapse (2005)
Final paragraph of Collapse: “My remaining cause for hope…
we have the opportunity to learn from the mistakes of distant
peoples and past peoples. That’s an opportunity that no past
society enjoyed to such a degree…”
Photo of Diamond from Wikimedia Commons; image of book jacket from amazon.com

6. Ecological Restoration
“…the process of intentionally altering a site to establish a defined, indigenous, historic ecosystem. The goal of the process is to emulate the structure, function, diversity and dynamics of the specified ecosystem…”
(Society for Ecological Restoration 1991)
Crissy Field, San Francisco Before restoration
Crissy Field, San Francisco After restoration
Photos of a restoration success story from Wikimedia Commons

7. Ecological Restoration
Groom et al. (2006) recognize several sub-categories:
Rehabilitation – improves a site from its degraded state
Enhancement or augmentation – improves a few ecosystem
functions in a site from its degraded state
Reclamation – often associated with mines or waste dumps,
in which the initial goal is detoxification & terrain stabilization
Recognize that different levels of improvement may occur through active intervention on at least two axes of assessment (e.g., ecosystem processes and ecosystem structure, as in Fig from Groom et al. [2006]; see next slide).
Replacement – specifies a novel community type for the site
to achieve a particular conservation goal; often to
improve ecosystem processes with less regard for
ecosystem structure

8. Ecological Restoration
Trajectories of restoration projects
Ecosystem
processes
ORIGINAL ECOSYSTEM
Replacement
Restoration
Replacement
Rehabilitation
Enhancement
Biomass & nutrient cycling
See also: Bradshaw
Feedbacks could propel an ecosystem to worse conditions if no restoration is attempted.
No action?
DEGRADED ECOSYSTEM
No action?
Ecosystem
structure
Species & complexity
Modified from Fig in Groom et al. (2006)

9. Ecological Restoration
Additional sub-categories from Groom et al. (2006) & other texts:
Remediation (similar to reclamation) – removes chemical contaminants
from polluted areas – by biotic (e.g., bioremediation, phytoremediation), chemical or physical means – especially to protect human
& ecosystem health
Re-creation (similar to replacement) – constructs a new biological
community on a site in which anthropogenic disturbance
essentially removed the entire native community, often in an attempt
to match a particular historic condition

10. Ecological Restoration
U. S. Legislation – e.g., Clean Water Act (1972)
“to restore & maintain the chemical, physical & biological
integrity of the Nation’s [surface] waters”
Requires mitigation: if unavoidable impacts to waters & wetlands occur, those responsible must restore / re-create comparable ecosystems elsewhere
Make note of the Supreme Court decision: Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook Cty. v. Army Corps of Engineers (2001) that reduced reach of Clean Water Act to isolated wetlands
Photo of wetland mitigation project in Australia (outside jurisdiction of CWA) from Wikimedia Commons

11. Ecological Restoration
U. S. Legislation – e.g., Surface Mining Control
& Reclamation Act (1977)
Aims to prevent adverse effects of surface mining (especially coal)
& requires mining companies to restore mined sites
(usually initiated through reclamation)
Photo of coal strip mine in Wyoming from Wikimedia Commons

12. Ex situ breeding reintroduction
Whooping Crane (Grus americana)
The tallest bird species in N. America; one of the most
endangered (41 wild birds in 1941; ~350 today)
Photo from Wikimedia Commons

13. Ex situ breeding reintroduction
Whooping Crane (Grus americana)
Cross-fostering with Sandhill Cranes failed, due to imprinting on foster
parents (which resulted in inappropriate mate choices later)
Captive breeding, followed by migratory training using light aircraft, has
re-established an eastern migratory population (Wisconsin–Florida)
Photo from Wikimedia Commons

14. Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Translocation
Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Photo of translocation of wolves from Alberta, Canada to Yellowstone, Jan. 1995, from Wikimedia Commons

15. Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Translocation
Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Photo of Alberta wolf in acclimation pen in Yellowstone, Jan. 1995, from Wikimedia Commons

16. Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Translocation
Wolves (Canis lupus) in Yellowstone
Photo of translocated Alberta wolf in Yellowstone, from Wikimedia Commons

17. “Restoring Yellowstone’s Aspen with Wolves”
William J. Ripple & Robert L. Beschta Restoring Yellostone’s Aspen with Wolves. Biological Conservation 138:
Aspen are recovering in their characteristic riparian habitats.
“Fig. 1 – (A) Wolf populations, (B) elk populations, (C)
percentage of aspen leaders browsed, and (D) mean aspen
heights in Yellowstone’s northern range (early springtime
heights after winter browsing but before summer growth).
The percentage of aspen leaders browsed decreased the
most and aspen grew tallest at high predation risk sites
(riparian areas with downed logs). Wolf data from Smith
et al. (2006); 1993–2004 elk data from White and Garrott
(2005); and 2005–2006 elk data unpublished from
Yellowstone National Park. The elk population estimate for
2006 is believed to be inaccurate due to poor weather
conditions during the count. Animal data presented here
are based on reporting year protocol suggested by White
and Garrott (2005).”
Photo from Wikimedia Commons; Figure from W. J. Ripple & R. L. Beschta (2007) Biological Conservation

18. “Restoring Yellowstone’s Aspen with Wolves”
“combined effects of a behaviorally-
mediated and density-mediated trophic cascade”
Density-mediated – indirect carnivore effect on plants owing to lethal direct carnivore effect on herbivore density
Behaviorally-mediated – indirect carnivore effect on plants owing to
non-lethal carnivore effect
on herbivore behavior
William J. Ripple & Robert L. Beschta Restoring Yellostone’s Aspen with Wolves. Biological Conservation 138:
Aspen are recovering in their characteristic riparian habitats.
“Fig. 1 – (A) Wolf populations, (B) elk populations, (C)
percentage of aspen leaders browsed, and (D) mean aspen
heights in Yellowstone’s northern range (early springtime
heights after winter browsing but before summer growth).
The percentage of aspen leaders browsed decreased the
most and aspen grew tallest at high predation risk sites
(riparian areas with downed logs). Wolf data from Smith
et al. (2006); 1993–2004 elk data from White and Garrott
(2005); and 2005–2006 elk data unpublished from
Yellowstone National Park. The elk population estimate for
2006 is believed to be inaccurate due to poor weather
conditions during the count. Animal data presented here
are based on reporting year protocol suggested by White
and Garrott (2005).”
Figure & quote from W. J. Ripple & R. L. Beschta (2007) Biological Conservation

19. Re-wilding North America with Pleistocene Megafauna
Some Conservation Biologists have made a serious proposal that we should re-create the N. Am. Pleistocene fauna with modern analogs
e.g., African elephants, South American camelids…
Contrast arguments for re-wilding with Pleistocene mammal-analogs with more reasonable arguments about re-introducing top predators (see Terborgh’s July 15, 2010 N. Y. Review of Books piece [“Why We Must Bring Back the Wolf”] on “Rewilding the World” by Caroline Fraser)
Artist’s re-creation of North American Pleistocene fauna from Wikimedia Commons

20. Re-wilding North America with Pleistocene Megafauna
… and carnivores, such as African lions & Siberian tigers (modern analogs of Smilodon [Saber-toothed cat])
It’s a serious proposal, but is it
a good idea?
Contrast arguments for re-wilding with Pleistocene mammal-analogs with more reasonable arguments about re-introducing top predators (see Terborgh’s July 15, 2010 N. Y. Review of Books piece [“Why We Must Bring Back the Wolf”] on “Rewilding the World” by Caroline Fraser)
Skull & artist’s re-creation of Smilodon from Wikimedia Commons

21. Key ecological goals for restoration
1. Restore natural ecosystem processes
2. Re-establish native species and their functional roles (especially
key players, e.g., ecosystem engineers, foundation species, etc.)
3. Remove / control / monitor exotic species
4. Others?

22. “Seabird Islands Take Mere Decades to
Recover Following Rat Eradication”
Photo of New Zealand seabird colony from Wikimedia Commons

23. “Seabird Islands Take Mere Decades to
Recover Following Rat Eradication”
15 islands off NE coast of New Zealand
Black dashed lines = Control islands (never invaded by rats)
Red dashed lines = Positive Control islands (rats currently present)
Note: This would be a good article to assign to class to read!
Figure from H. P. Jones [Ph.D Yale School of Forestry & Environ. Sci.] (2010) Ecological Applications

24. “Seabird Islands Take Mere Decades to
Recover Following Rat Eradication”
“I show that soil, plant, and spider marine-derived nitrogen levels
and C:N ratios take mere decades to recover even after
centuries-long rat invasion. Moreover, active seabird restoration
could speed recovery even further, giving much hope
to quickly conserve many endemic species on islands worldwide.”
Note: This would be a good article to assign to class to read!
Quote from H. P. Jones [Ph.D Yale School of Forestry & Environ. Sci.] (2010) Ecological Applications

25. “Rapid Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems”
Meta-analysis
240 published
studies
Note: This would be a good article to assign to class to read!
Figure from H. P. Jones [Ph.D Yale School of Forestry & Environ. Sci.] & O. J. Schmitz (2009) PLoS ONE

26. “Rapid Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems”
Meta-analysis
Note: This would be a good article to assign to class to read!
Figure from H. P. Jones [Ph.D Yale School of Forestry & Environ. Sci.] & O. J. Schmitz (2009) PLoS ONE

27. “Rapid Recovery of Damaged Ecosystems”
Meta-analysis
“We provide startling evidence that most ecosystems globally
can, given human will, recover from very major perturbations
[a.k.a. disturbances] on timescales of decades to half-centuries.”
“The message of our paper is that recovery is possible and can
be rapid for many ecosystems, giving much hope for humankind
to transition to sustainable management of global ecosystems.”
Note: This would be a good article to assign to class to read!
Quotes from H. P. Jones [Ph.D Yale School of Forestry & Environ. Sci.] & O. J. Schmitz (2009) PLoS ONE

28. “The Rise of Restoration Ecology”
“The Rise of Restoration Ecology” – the title of the Restoration Ecology section of this issue of the journal
Cover of Science – July 31, 2009

29. “Enhancement of Biodiversity & Ecosystem Services
by Ecological Restoration”
Meta-analysis
(89 restoration assessments;
response ratio = ln[Restored / Degraded or Reference])
[ReyBenayasJM_etal_2009_Science.pdf]
This article is mentioned as in press on pg. 555 of the Restoration Ecology issue.
“The ecosystem services were classified according to the scheme developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (5), which distinguishes four categories: (i) supporting (e.g., nutrient cycling and primary production), (ii) provisioning (e.g., timber, fish, food crops), (iii) regulating (e.g., of climate, water supply, and soil characteristics), and (iv) cultural (e.g., aesthetic value).”
“We calculated response ratios (14) of the restored ecosystems compared with both the reference [ln(Rest/Ref)] and degraded [ln(Rest/Deg)] ecosystems for each measure of biodiversity and ecosystem services.”
“Our results indicate that measures of supporting and regulating ecosystem services and biodiversity across the whole data set were higher in restored than in degraded systems (response ratio > 0, Fig. 1A) but lower than in reference systems (ratio < 0, Fig. 1B). Provisioning services showed no effect of restoration, but the sample size for this type of service was low. Our data indicate that supporting services, which provide the basis for provision of other services, were restored more effectively than other service types.”
Provisioning = e.g., fish, food crops, timber
Supporting = e.g., nutrient cycling, primary production
Regulating = e.g., climate, water supply, soil characteristics
Figure & quote from J. M. Rey Benayas et al. (2009) Science

30. “Enhancement of Biodiversity & Ecosystem Services
by Ecological Restoration”
Meta-analysis
(89 restoration assessments;
response ratio = ln[Restored / Degraded or Reference])
[ReyBenayasJM_etal_2009_Science.pdf]
This article is mentioned as in press on pg. 555 of the Restoration Ecology issue.
“Ecological restoration increased provision of biodiversity and ecosystem services by 44 and 25%, respectively. However, values of both remained
lower in restored versus intact reference ecosystems.”
Figure & quote from J. M. Rey Benayas et al. (2009) Science

31. Ecological Restoration
Trajectories of restoration projects
Ecosystem
processes
ORIGINAL ECOSYSTEM
Replacement
Restoration
Replacement
Rehabilitation
Enhancement
Biomass & nutrient cycling
J. M. Rey Benayas et al. (2009) results are consistent with this figure.
No action?
DEGRADED ECOSYSTEM
No action?
Ecosystem
structure
Species & complexity
Modified from Fig in Groom et al. (2006)

32. Ecological Restoration
Read fourth-to-last pg. – “And all that the Lorax left…”
And
Read second-to-last pg. “‘But now,’ says the Once-ler,…”
Image from