Prentice Hall EARTH SCIENCE

Prentice Hall EARTH SCIENCE
Tarbuck Lutgens 

Introduction to Earth Science {approx. 6 days}
Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science {approx. 6 days} National Standard A1: - Students will define Earth Science - Students will describe the formation of the Earth and the solar system

Chapter 1.1 What is Earth Science? CCSS ELA LITERACY RST Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 9-10 texts and topics.

1. Students will DEFINE Earth Science.
Chapter 1.1 What is Earth Science? Section Objectives 1. Students will DEFINE Earth Science. 2. Students will DESCRIBE the formation of Earth and the solar system.

Vocabulary Introduction to Earth Science ◆ Earth Science ◆ geology
Chapter 1.1 Introduction to Earth Science Vocabulary ◆ Earth Science ◆ geology ◆ oceanography ◆ meteorology ◆ astronomy

Introduction to Earth Science
Chapter 1.1 Introduction to Earth Science WORD SEMANTICS AND ETYMOLOGY -ology -onomy means the study of -omy -ography Geo means Earth Meteoron means Bio means life atmosphere Atmo means air Anatemnein means to Paleonta means cut the past Astronomia means universe

1.1 What Is Earth Science? Overview of Earth Science RS a-g
 Earth science includes 1. Geology, (a) the study of Earth, earthquakes, mountains, volcanoes and Earth’s history 2. (b) Oceanography, (c) composition and movements of seawater, coastal processes, seafloor topography and marine life. 3. (d) Meteorology, (e) the study of the atmosphere, weather and climate (#10) 4. (f) Astronomy, (g) the study of the universe and the solar system (#11)

1.1 What Is Earth Science? pp. 2-5
Overview of Earth Science #1 1.1 What Is Earth Science? pp. 2-5  Includes all sciences that seek to understand the Earth’s atmosphere surface neighbors in space interior

Subdivisions of Earth Science #2 1.1 What Is Earth Science? pp. 2-5 geochemistry geophysics geobiology paleontology oceanography meteorology astronomy

Geology 1.1 What Is Earth Science? pp. 2-5  is the study of the Earth #3 Branches: #4-5 Physical Geology – study of the materials that make up the Earth and the processes that shape up our planet. Historical Geology – study of the Earth’s timeline, which includes the physical and biological changes that occurred in the past. (#7)

1.1 What Is Earth Science? Formation of Earth
 Most researchers conclude that Earth and the other planets formed at essentially the same time. Rocks and minerals formed in response to the internal and external processes. #6

1.1 What Is Earth Science? Oceanography
 includes the following sciences: #8 Chemistry Physics Biology Meteorology  Oceanographers study the composition of the seawater, as well as the coastal processes, seafloor topography and marine life. #9

The Nebular Hypothesis
C D E B  The Nebular (#12) Hypothesis suggests that the bodies of our solar system evolved from an enormous rotating cloud called the solar nebula. #9

Nebular Hypothesis An enormous cloud of gases made up mostly of Hydrogen and Helium (#13) with a small percentage of heavier elements coalesced (joined together). The cloud or nebula started to rotate and collapse toward the center of the cloud . Heat was generated at the center , which eventually formed the sun. #14

• About 5 billion years ago, the nebula began to contract (draw or come together; shrink).

• It assumed a flat, disk shape with the protosun (pre-Sun) at the center.

• Inner planets begin to form from metallic and rocky clumps.

• Larger outer planets began forming from fragments with a high percentage of ices.

 Layers Form on Earth • As Earth formed, the decay of radioactive elements and heat from high-velocity impacts caused the temperature to increase.

• Lighter rocky components floated outward, toward the surface.

• Gaseous material escaped from Earth’s interior to produce the primitive atmosphere.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 California Standard:
8b - Students know how the composition of Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over geologic time, the variations of carbon dioxide concentration, and the origin of atmospheric oxygen. 3a - Students know features of the ocean floor provide evidence of plate tectonics.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Section Objective:
1. Students will describe the Earth’s 4 major spheres. 2. Students will differentiate among the three parts of the geosphere. 3. The students will restate the Plate Tectonic Theory.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.1
Initiate and participate effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grades 9-10 topics, texts, and issues, building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 VOCABULARY WORDS Hydrosphere Atmosphere
Geosphere Biosphere Core Mantle Crust

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 VOCABULARY TERM BEFORE YOU READ
Reading Strategy a-n VOCABULARY TERM BEFORE YOU READ AFTER YOU READ hydrosphere atmosphere geosphere biosphere core mantle crust

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Earth's 4 Major Spheres #1 Hydrosphere
Atmosphere Geosphere Biosphere

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Earth's 4 Major Spheres
1. Hydrosphere (ball of water) is all the water on Earth. #2 • Ocean is the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere. - Is nearly 71% of Earth's surface - Holds about 97% of Earth's water • Includes fresh water found in streams, lakes, and glaciers, as well as that found underground

2. Atmosphere (ball of air) is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. #3 • Our atmosphere act as an insulating blanket of just the right thickness, trapping sufficient solar energy to keep the global average temperature in a pleasant range. • The Goldilocks Principle can be summed up neatly as "Venus is too hot, Mars is too cold, and Earth is just right.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Earth's 4 Major Spheres Atmosphere
Earth is believed to have formed about 4.5 billion years ago. In the beginning, the atmosphere may have consisted of hydrogen (H2), water vapor, methane (CH4) , and carbon oxides. After about 2 billion years, the atmosphere probably consisted of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), water (H2O), nitrogen (N2), and hydrogen. After about 3.5 billion years, early aquatic organisms called blue-green algae began using energy from the Sun to split molecules of H2O and CO2 and recombine them into organic compounds and molecular oxygen (O2). This solar energy conversion process is known as photosynthesis and oxygen (O2) molecules were formed. These atoms combining with remaining oxygen (O2) to form ozone (O3) molecules, which are very effective at absorbing UV rays. The thin layer of ozone that surrounds Earth acts as a shield, protecting the planet from irradiation by UV light.

3. Biosphere (ball of living things) is a zone that is found in the other three spheres where all life on Earth located. • Includes all life forms #5 • Concentrated near the surface in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several kilometers into the atmosphere

1.2 A View of Earth Earth's Major Spheres
4. Geosphere (ball of rock) dense, heavy inner sphere of Earth #4; it is the main and solid part of the Earth that is divide into three main parts based on composition.

1.2 A View of Earth • The 3 main parts of the geosphere are crust, mantle, and core. These layers formed because of density differences. Q - crust (outer envelope) light, thin, outer layer of the Earth’s surface #8 - mantle (ledge) less dense middle layer; located between the crust and core of Earth #7 - core (center of the Earth) heavy, dense inner sphere #6

Earth’s Layered Structure
#9 Athenosphere and Lithosphere are parts of the Earth’s geosphere. D G E F C B H A I J

Forces such as weathering and erosion that work to wear away high points and flatten out Earth’s surface are called destructive forces.#10

Forces such as mountain building and volcanism build up the surface by raising the land and depositing new material in the form of lava are called constructive forces.#11 Constructive forces depend on Earth’s internal heat for their source of energy. #12

What theory explains the movement of the crust that involves Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions?
Plate tectonics – is the movement of the Earth’s crust through convection (circular movement to transfer heat energy) currents, which are internal heat energy. Q The Plate Tectonics theory helps scientists explain how earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. #13

The principle of Plate Tectonic Theory states that the Earth’s lithosphere is broken into several individual sections called plates. These plates move slowly and continuously due to the unequal distribution of heat within Earth. The movements of these plates generate earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the deformation of large masses of rock into mountains. #14

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Meeting the Standard:
1. Explain how the Earth’s atmosphere change over time. Restate the Plate Tectonics Theory. Describe the 4 major spheres of the Earth. Differentiate the 3 major layers of the geosphere.

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Quiz:
1. Which of Earth’s spheres do each of these features belong: lake, meadow, canyon, cloud? 2. What are the three main parts of the geosphere? 3. Why is the solid Earth layered? 4. The plate tectonics theory explains the existence and occurrence of what features?

1.2 A View of Earth pp. 7-10 Answers:
1. lake: hydrosphere, meadow: geosphere, canyon: geosphere, cloud: atmosphere 2. The three main parts of the geosphere are the core, mantle, and crust. 3. The layers formed because of density differences in the materials that made up early Earth. 4. Plate tectonics explains mountains, continents, ocean basins, earthquakes, and volcanoes.

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface pp. 11-17
California Standard: 6b - Students know the effects on climate of latitude, elevation, topography, and proximity to large bodies of water and cold or warm ocean currents.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; trace the text's explanation or depiction of a complex process, concept or phenomenon; provide an accurate summary of the text.

Section Objectives 1.6 – locate points on Earth’s surface by their latitude and longitude 1.7 – describe the advantages and disadvantages of different types of maps 1.8 – explain the difference of topographic map from other types of maps

VOCABULARY WORDS Latitude Longitude Topographic map Contour line Contour interval

Reading Strategy a-d What I expect to learn What I have learned a. b. c. d.

Determining Location 1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface pp Latitude and longitude are lines on the globe that are used to determine location. Latitude is distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees. #1 Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees. #2

A globe is a spherical model of Earth. #7
*** The zero/prime meridian (0°), used as a reference line from which longitude east and west is measured. It passes through Greenwich, England . A globe is a spherical model of Earth. #7 Equator is the line of latitude around the middle of the globe at 0 degrees. #3 Northern and Southern are the two hemispheres formed by the equator. #5 Eastern and Western are the two hemispheres formed by the prime meridian and the 180° meridian #6 On the global grid, the Prime Meridian is at 0* longitude. #4

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface
Maps and Mapping 1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface A map is a flat representation of the Earth. #8 No matter what kind of map is made, some portion of the surface will always look either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers have, however, found ways to limit the distortion of shape, size, distance and direction. A map with a scale of 1:24,000 means that 1 unit on the map is equal to 24,000 units on the ground.

Different Kinds of Map (Projection)
1. The Mercator Projection Map 2. Robinson Projection Map 3. Conic Projection Map 4. Gnomonic Projection Map 5. Topographic Map 6. Geologic Map

Mercator Projection #9c – shows accurate directions, but has distorted sizes and distances.
lines of latitude are parallel to the equator and lines of longitude are curved around the prime meridian It is useful because although the sizes and distances are distorted, it showed directions accurately.

Robinson Projection Map #9d
widely-used type of map with a flat top and bottom latitude are parallel to the equator most distances, sizes and shapes are represented accurately but the distances and compass directions are distorted

Conic Projection #9a a type of map in which a cone is wrapped around a sphere (the globe), and the details of the globe are projected onto the cylindrical surface. Then, the cylinder is unwrapped into a flat surface. Almost no distortion in some areas but great distortion in most areas Used to make roads and as a weather map

Gnomonic Projection #9b
a type of map that is made by placing a piece of paper on the globe so that it touches a single point on the globe’s surface. various points and lines are then projected onto the paper Although distances and directions are distorted, they are useful to sailors and navigators because they show great accuracy between 2 points

Topographic Maps Topographic maps represent Earth’s surface in three dimensions; they show the best differences in elevation, distance directions, and slope angles. #10 Contour lines are lines on a topographic map that indicate an elevation; areas with lines that are very close to each other is very steep; areas with lines that are very far apart is nearly flat; lines that form a circle indicate a hill. Contour interval is the distance in elevation between adjacent contour lines. The closer the contour lines, are the greater the change and steeper.

A perspective shaded-relief view of part of the same map

Geologic Map is a map that shows the type and age of the rocks that are exposed, or crop out, at the surface. The color coding on the map represents some rock formations in Montana. Each color and pattern represents a different type of rock.

What happens to the images on the globe when they are transferred to a flat surface?
They become distorted when moving from a global map to a flat - mainly at the poles.

Map Projection Distortions
These image show the earth using different projections. Notice how the continents look stretched or squashed depending on the projection.

The process of collecting data about Earth from a distance (such as from orbiting satellites) is called remote sensing. #11

1.3 Earth System Science pp. 11-16
Advanced Technology Today’s technology provides us with the ability to more precisely analyze Earth’s physical properties. We can use this technology in our daily lives too. For example, Global Positioning Systems (GPS) can provide maps in our cars to help us reach our destinations. GPS consists of an instrument that receives signals to compute the user’s latitude and longitude as well as speed, direction, and elevation. GPS is an important tool for navigation by ships and airplanes. Scientists use GPS to track wildlife, study earthquakes, measure erosion, and many other purposes. VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry utilizes a large network of antennas around the world to receive radio Interferometry (VLBI) waves from space objects such as quasars. QUASAR - An enormously bright object at the edge of our universe which emits massive amounts of energy.

The image shown is similar to a photograph, but is taken from a satellite orbiting around Earth. The light blue areas are moving sediment carried down by the Mississippi River. The area at the center right side of the image is called the Mississippi delta and was formed from sediments deposited by the River. Natural resources, fires, pollution, rivers and oceans are some of the things scientists can study using satellite remote sensing. #12

1. Describe the two sets of lines that are used on globes and some maps. 2. What happens to the images on the globe when they are transferred to a flat surface? 3. What is the purpose of contour lines on topographic maps? 4. What two lines mark zero degrees on the globe? In which directions do these lines run? 5. Why is the Mercator projection map still in use today?

1. Lines of latitude are east-west circles around the globe. Lines of longitude run north and south. 2. They become distorted. 3. Contour lines indicate elevation. 4. The lines are the equator, which runs east and west, and the prime meridian, which runs north and south. 5. It is useful to sailors because although size and shape are distorted, it shows directions accurately.

California Standards: 4a - Students know the relative amount of incoming solar energy compared with Earth's internal energy and the energy used by society.

Section Objectives: 1.9 Describe the primary goal of Earth system science and define the term system. 1.10 Describe Earth’s two major sources of energy. 1.11 Explain how humans affect Earth’s systems. 1.12 Distinguish between renewable and nonrenewable resources.

What Is a System? A system is any size group of interacting parts that form a complex whole. Types of Systems: 1. Closed systems are self contained (e.g., an automobile cooling system). 2. Open systems allow both energy and matter to flow in and out of the system (e.g., a river system).

1.4 Earth System Science Earth as a System
 Earth is a dynamic body with many separate but highly interacting parts or spheres.  We can say that Earth is a system because all of its parts interact.

1.4 Earth System Science Earth as a System  Sources of Energy
1. Sun—drives external processes such as weather, ocean circulation and erosional processes 2. Earth’s interior —drives internal processes including volcanoes, earthquakes and mountain building

1.4 Earth System Science Earth as a System
Consists of a nearly endless array of subsystems (ex: One of the interacting parts in a weather system are the clouds. )  Humans are part of the Earth system.

1.4 Earth System Science People and the Environment  Environment
• Surrounds and influences organisms Physical environment encompasses water, air, soil, and rock The term environmental is usually reserved for those aspects that focus on the relationships between people and the natural environment.

1.4 Earth System Science People and the Environment  Resources
• Include water, soil, minerals, and energy • Two broad categories Renewable—can be replenished (ex: plants, energy from water and wind) 2. Nonrenewable—cannot be replenished in the near future (e.g., metals, fuels)

1.4 Earth System Science People and the Environment  Population
• Population of the planet is growing rapidly • Use of minerals/energy has climbed more rapidly than the overall growth of population

Growth of World Population

1.4 Earth System Science Environmental Problems
 Local, regional, and global  Caused by people and societies • Urban air pollution Pollution is an environmental hazard created by humans. • Acid rain • Ozone depletion • Global warming  Caused by natural hazards • Earthquakes • Landslides

Acid Rain

Ozone Depletion The ozone layer is constantly formed and destroyed by the same reaction with UV light. Humans have unbalanced this reaction by adding certain chemicals to the air. These chemicals are nitrogen oxides from combustion engines, chloroflourocarbons (CFC) and, halogen compounds. They are found in factory fumes and products used in homes such as chemicals used in refrigeration and air conditioning as well as in common products like aerosols and styrofoam. In 1990, the Montreal Protocol was signed by many countries which banned the use of CFC in manufacturing in these countries. The United States and Canada were two countries which participated. In the 1970's a hole was discovered over Antartica by the Haley Bay Station. The British Antartic Survey has been studying the depletion of the ozone layer for the past 15 years. In 1994 the ozone values have decreased to less then half of its values in This concides with the increased halogen use and CFC use. This along with natural weather features of this area seem to account for the decrease in ozone. The air over Antartica gets to negative 80 degrees celcius which allows Polar Statospheric clouds (PSC's) to form. These clouds are made of nitric acid trihydrate. Once these clouds form the polar vortex which occurs naturally over Antartica plus CFC cause a natural decay of ozone.

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry? pp. 23-24
California Content Standard: Investigation and Experimentation 1f - Distinguish between hypothesis and theory as scientific terms.

What is Scientific Inquiry? P. 22-24
1.5 What is Scientific Inquiry? P Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 9-10 texts and topics.

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry? pp. 23-24
Section Objective: 1.13 Define the terms hypothesis and theory.

VOCABULARY WORDS Hypothesis Theory

HYPOTHESIS THEORY

Science  Science assumes the natural world is • consistent
• predictable Goals of science are • to discover patterns in nature • to use the knowledge to predict

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?
 An idea can become a hypothesis - a possible scientific explanation for how or why things happen. #1 theory - is well tested and widely accepted by the scientific community and best explains certain observable facts. #6 A scientific hypothesis can become a theory if the hypothesis is tested extensively and competing hypotheses are eliminated. #2

Examples of Hypothesis #3
1. Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar. 2. All daisies have the same number of petals. 3. The Earth is at the center of the universe. 4. If you get at least 6 hours of sleep, you will do better on tests than if you get less sleep. 5. If you drink coffee before going to bed, then it will take longer to fall asleep. 6. If you cover a wound with a bandage, then it will heal with less scarring.

If a hypothesis can’t be tested, it is not scientifically useful
If a hypothesis can’t be tested, it is not scientifically useful. Hypotheses that fail rigorous testing are discarded. #4 Sometimes more than one hypothesis is developed to explain the same set of observations. #5

Examples of Theory #7 Pythagorean Theory ( when a triangle has a right angle, and a square is made on each of the 3 sides, the biggest square has the exact same area as the other 2 squares put together.) (a2 + b2 = c2) 2. The Plate Tectonic Theory is the theory that the outer rigid layer of the earth (the lithosphere) is divided into a couple of dozen "plates" that move around across the earth's surface relative to each other, like slabs of ice on a lake.

 Scientific Method is the process of gathering facts through observations and formulating scientific hypotheses and theories. #8

SCIENTIFIC METHOD FLOWCHART #9
Develop one or more working hypotheses or models to explain observed facts or measurements. Collect scientific facts through observation and measurement. After extensive testing, accept, modify, or reject the remaining hypothesis. Test hypotheses using observations and/or experiments.

What is a scientific law?
a theory at has been proven by much data and facts and can not be questioned.

Name something that is a a scientific law that relates to Earth Science.
Newton’s first three laws of motion with his laws on thermal energy. 1st Law of Motion : The Law of Inertia 2nd Law of Motion : F = MA (Force is equal to Mass x Accelaration) FORCE = 1000 x .05FORCE = 50 NEWTONS 3rd Law of Motion : For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.

Not all scientists follow the same steps outlined above when doing scientific research. #10

1. You have just come up with an explanation to a question that has bothered you for some time. What must you do to have your explanation become a hypothesis? 2. Explain how a hypothesis can become a theory.

1. Test and analyze the hypothesis. 2. A hypothesis can become a theory once it has survived extensive testing and when competing hypotheses have been eliminated.

END OF THE CHAPTER

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?
Science Methods 1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?  Scientific knowledge is gained through • following systematic steps 1. Collecting facts 2. Developing a hypothesis 3. Conducting experiments 4. Reexamining the hypothesis and accepting, modifying, or rejecting it • theories that withstand examination totally unexpected occurrences

The Scientific Method

Orthographic projection
An Orthographic projection is a type of map in which is essentially a drawing of (one side of) a globe. There is a lot of distortion of area in this type of map, but one gets the idea that the globe is being represented.

Mercator projection A Mercator projection is a type of rectangular map in which the true compass direction are kept intact (lines of latitude and longitude intersect at right angles), but areas are distorted (for example, polar areas look much larger than they really are). Mercator projections are useful for nautical (ocean) navigation. Geradus Mercator devised this cylindrical projection for use in navigation in 1569.

Map Projections Projections: Maps are called projections because map-makers have to project a 3-D surface onto a 2-D map. A projection is a representation of one thing onto another, such as a curved 3-Dimensional surface (like the Earth) onto a flat 2-Dimensional map. There are 3 major types of projections: cylindrical, conic, and planar.

Winkel Tripel Projection
A Winkel Tripel projection is a type of pseudocylindrical projection map in which both the lines of latitude and longitude are curved. The Winkel Tripel projection was adopted by the National Geographic Society in the late 1990s (replacing the Robinson projection).

Mollweide projection A Mollweide projection is a type of sinusoidal projection map in which the entire surface of the Earth is shown within an ellipse. Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator, but lines of longitude are curved in such a way that area distortion is minimal. The distortion is greatest at the edges of the ellipse. This type of projection was created by Carl B. Mollweide in 1805.

Planar Projection A planar projection is a type of map in which the details of the globe are projected onto a plane (a flat surface) yielding a rectangular-shaped map. Cylindrical maps have a lot of distortion towards the edges.

Topographic map of India

Central Meridian A central meridian is a meridian that passes through the center of a projection. The central meridian is often a straight line that is an axis of symmetry of the projection.

Cylindical Projection
A cylindrical projection is a type of map in which a cylinder is wrapped around a sphere (the globe), and the details of the globe are projected onto the cylindrical surface. Then, the cylinder is unwrapped into a flat surface, yielding a rectangular-shaped map. Cylindrical maps have a lot of distortion in the polar regions (that is, the size of the polar regions is greatly exaggerated on these maps).

How are geologic map coding different?
most use color coding or special line types and patterns.

US Zip Code Map ZIP is the abbreviation for “Zone Improvement Plan.” It is a 5-digit coding program that identifies a specific mail delivery area. There are about 43,000 ZIP codes nationwide. The United States Postal Service began implementing the ZIP Code on July 1, They took advantage of the availability of highways and air transportation in addition to rail. The standard ZIP code’s first 3 digits represent a U.S. geographical area, such as 0 (Northeast) to 9 (West). The next 2 digits are specific zoned cities. In 1983 the postal service expanded the 5-digit system with a 4-digit extension, or add-on. The 4-digit extension identifies a specific segment within the 5-digit ZIP Code. A unique ZIP code is dedicated to a large volume address such as an institution, university, hospital or government agency.

1.2 A View of Earth Earth's Major Spheres
2. Atmosphere is the thin gaseous envelope that surrounds Earth. • Thin, tenuous (having little substance or strength) blanket of air • One half lies below 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles)

The Cosmic Calendar Imagine the fifteen-billion-year lifetime of the universe (or at least its present incarnation since the Big Bang) compressed into the span of a single year

One of the most significant accomplishments of our species is the discovery of fossil fuels and the means of turning the energy trapped within them into heat, transportation, and the basis for manufacturing and construction.

Our atmosphere act as an insulating blanket of just the right thickness, trapping sufficient solar energy to keep the global average temperature in a pleasant range. The Martian blanket is too thin, and the Venusian blanket is way too thick! The 'blanket' here is a collection of atmospheric gases called 'greenhouse gases' based on the idea that the gases also 'trap' heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse do.

The Goldilocks Principle
The Goldilocks Principle can be summed up neatly as "Venus is too hot, Mars is too cold, and Earth is just right. Our moderate temperatures are also the result of having just the right kind of atmosphere. A Venus-type atmosphere would produce hellish, Venus-like conditions on our planet; a Mars atmosphere would leave us shivering in a Martian-type deep freeze.

• The nebula was composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.

The inner core is under such immense pressure that it is solid metal.
Core -the innermost layer of Earth, located beneath the mantle. The Core – Iron Center About 15 percent of Earth's volume is an iron-nickel core the size of Mars. The outer core is molten...and so hot it could be as fluid as water. Its motions create Earth's dynamic magnetic field. The inner core is under such immense pressure that it is solid metal.

Mantle - the 2890-kilometer-thick layer of Earth
located below the crust. The Mantle – Deep and Dense About 84 percent of Earth's volume is mantle rock. The uppermost 100km of the mantle is rigid. Along with the crust, it makes up the lithosphere (the plates). The next layer, the asthenosphere, is solid, hot, and soft. It flows much like a glacier does. The lower mantle is extremely dense. It, too, flows.

Crust—the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth
The Crust – Earth’s Thin Skin Relative to its size, Earth's crust is about as thin as an apple's skin. This outermost layer is composed primarily of two types of rock. Granite The continental crust is mostly granite. Basalt The oceanic crust is mostly basalt.

Climates Past The climate of planet Earth is unstable. Our evolutionary origins lie in the warm, relatively benign climate of equatorial Africa, but our ancestors battled the cold, harsh, and unforgiving climate of the last ice age in order to spread across the planet. Some 10,000 years ago, however, the ice age ended. We developed agriculture, civilization, industry, and technology generally in a global climate that was warm, pleasant, and mostly predictable. Regional climates have changed, sometimes drastically and disastrously for local human populations, but by and large the global climate has not dealt any significant long-term blows to the spread and development of human civilization.

ICE HOUSE or HOT HOUSE? During the last 2 billion years the Earth's climate has alternated between a frigid "Ice House", like today's world, and a steaming "Hot House", like the world of the dinosaurs. This chart shows how global climate has changed through time.

The Greenhouse Effect aka Global Warming
The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere (water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, for example) trap energy from the sun. Without these gases, heat would escape back into space and Earth’s average temperature would be about 60ºF colder. Because of how they warm our world, these gases are referred to as greenhouse gases.

Carbon Dioxide Level in the Atmosphere

Plate Boundaries Convergent Boundaries Divergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries

Convergent Boundaries
Places where plates crash or crunch together are called convergent boundaries. Plates only move a few centimeters each year, so collisions are very slow and last millions of years. Even though plate collisions take a long time, lots of interesting things happen. For example, an oceanic plate has crashed into a continental plate. The edge of the continental plate in the drawing has folded into a huge mountain range, while the edge of the oceanic plate has bent downward and dug deep into the Earth. A trench has formed at the bend. All that folding and bending makes rock in both plates break and slip, causing earthquakes. As the edge of the oceanic plate digs into Earth's hot interior, some of the rock in it melts. The melted rock rises up through the continental plate, causing more earthquakes on its way up, and forming volcanic eruptions where it finally reaches the surface.

An example of this type of collision is found on the west coast of South America where the oceanic Nazca Plate is crashing into the continent of South America.

The crash formed the Andes Mountains, the long string of volcanoes along the mountain crest, and the deep trench off the coast in the Pacific Ocean. The Andes are the world's longest exposed mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. The Andes mountains extend over seven countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, some of which are known as Andean States.

The Pacific Ring of Fire

Divergent Boundaries Places where plates are coming apart are called divergent boundaries. When Earth's brittle surface layer (the lithosphere) is pulled apart, it typically breaks along parallel faults that tilt slightly outward from each other. As the plates separate along the boundary, the block between the faults cracks and drops down into the soft, plastic interior (the asthenosphere). The sinking of the block forms a central valley called a rift. Magma (liquid rock) seeps upward to fill the cracks. In this way, new crust is formed along the boundary. Earthquakes occur along the faults, and volcanoes form where the magma reaches the surface. Where a divergent boundary crosses the land, the rift valleys which form are typically 30 to 50 kilometers wide.

Examples include the East Africa rift in Kenya and Ethiopia
The East African Rift System (EARS) is one the geologic wonders of the world, a place where the earth’s tectonic forces are presently trying to create new plates by splitting apart old ones. In simple terms, a rift can be thought of as a fracture in the earth’s surface that widens over time, or more technically, as an elongate basin bounded by opposed steeply dipping normal faults.

and the Rio Grande rift in New Mexico.

Where a divergent boundary crosses the ocean floor, the rift valley is much narrower, only a kilometer or less across, and it runs along the top of a midoceanic ridge. Oceanic ridges rise a kilometer or so above the ocean floor and form a global network tens of thousands of miles long. Examples include the Mid-Atlantic ridge and the East Pacific Rise. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a mostly-underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics. Magma emerges through the crust from rifts along the ridge, cooling to create new crust. Here the ridge crosses Iceland.

Plate separation is a slow process
Plate separation is a slow process. For example, divergence along the Mid Atlantic ridge causes the Atlantic Ocean to widen at only about 2 centimeters per year.

Transform Boundaries Places where plates slide past each other are called transform boundaries. Since the plates on either side of a transform boundary are merely sliding past each other and not tearing or crunching each other, transform boundaries lack the spectacular features found at convergent and divergent boundaries. Instead, transform boundaries are marked in some places by linear valleys along the boundary where rock has been ground up by the sliding. In other places, transform boundaries are marked by features like stream beds that have been split in half and the two halves have moved in opposite directions. Perhaps the most famous transform boundary in the world is the San Andreas fault, shown in the drawing above. The slice of California to the west of the fault is slowly moving north relative to the rest of California. Since motion along the fault is sideways and not vertical, Los Angeles will not crack off and fall into the ocean as popularly thought, but it will simply creep towards San Francisco at about 6 centimeters per year. In about ten million years, the two cities will be side by side! Although transform boundaries are not marked by spectacular surface features, their sliding motion causes lots of earthquakes. The strongest and most famous earthquake along the San Andreas fault hit San Francisco in Many buildings were shaken to pieces by the quake, and much of the rest of the city was destroyed by the fires that followed. More than 600 people died as a result of the quake and fires. Recent large quakes along the San Andreas include the Imperial Valley quake in 1940 and the Loma Prieta quake in 1989.

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Prentice Hall EARTH SCIENCE

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