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Characteristics and Components of an Ecosystem
Or everything I should remember from Biology class!!! AICE EM: Biosphere Key Content 1 MORE
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What are the major abiotic and biotic factors, which drive and influence the distribution of different ecosystems? The biotic and abiotic factors which control the distribution of the world’s major biomes as listed in the notes for guidance. A survey of the global system followed by a study of the distribution of the following biomes: tropical rain forest, monsoon rain forest, tropical savannah, desert, temperate deciduous and high latitude tundra.
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Biosphere Ecosystem Community Population Organism Cell Molecule Atom
Parts of the earth's air, water, and soil where life is found Biosphere Ecosystem A community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy Community Populations of different species living in a particular place, and potentially interacting with each other Population A group of individuals of the same species living in a particular place Organism An individual living being Figure 3.3 Some levels of organization of matter in nature. Ecology focuses on the top five of these levels. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Cell The fundamental structural and functional unit of life Molecule Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same or different elements Smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits its chemical properties Atom Stepped Art Fig. 3-3, p. 52
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Habitats Place where organism lives.
Small (termite intestine) Large (ocean) Includes abiotic & biotic features “Natural address”
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BIOMES Biomes are major areas where interactions between abiotic & biotic factors occur. They are groups of similar ecosystems characterized by precipitation, and temperature ranges, soil properties, plant communities, and animal communities.
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Natural Capital: Generalized Map of the Earth’s Current Climate Zones
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Moist air rises, cools, and releases moisture as rain
Polar cap Arctic tundra Evergreen coniferous forest 60° Temperate deciduous forest and grassland Desert 30° Tropical deciduous forest Equator 0° Tropical rain forest Tropical deciduous forest 30° Desert Figure 7.6 Global air circulation, ocean currents, and biomes. Heat and moisture are distributed over the earth’s surface via six giant convection cells (like the one in Figure 7-4) at different latitudes. The resulting uneven distribution of heat and moisture over the planet’s surface leads to the forests, grasslands, and deserts that make up the earth’s terrestrial biomes. Temperate deciduous forest and grassland 60° Polar cap Fig. 7-6, p. 144
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The Earth’s Major Biomes
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Biome Location Based on Altitude & Latitude
Elevation Mountain ice and snow Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Deciduous Forest Tropical Forest Latitude Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Figure 7.9 Generalized effects of elevation (left) and latitude (right) on climate and biomes. Parallel changes in vegetation type occur when we travel from the equator to the poles or from lowlands to mountaintops. Question: How might the components of the left diagram change as the earth warms during this century? Explain. Stepped Art Fig. 7-9, p. 147
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Major Biomes along the 39th Parallel in the U.S.
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Decreasing temperature Decreasing precipitation
Cold Polar Tundra Subpolar Temperate Coniferous forest Decreasing temperature Desert Deciduous forest Grassland Tropical Chaparral Hot Figure 7.10 Natural capital: average precipitation and average temperature, acting together as limiting factors over a long time, help to determine the type of desert, grassland, or forest biome in a particular area. Although each actual situation is much more complex, this simplified diagram explains how climate helps to determine the types and amounts of natural vegetation found in an area left undisturbed by human activities. (Used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Company, from Derek Elsom, The Earth, New York: Macmillan, Copyright © 1992 by Marshall Editions Developments Limited). Desert Wet Rain forest Savanna Dry Tropical seasonal forest Scrubland Decreasing precipitation Fig. 7-10, p. 147
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Figure 7.11 Climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature (red) and precipitation (blue) in tropical, temperate, and cold deserts. Top photo: a popular (but destructive) SUV rodeo in United Arab Emirates (tropical desert). Center photo: saguaro cactus in the U.S. state of Arizona (temperate desert). Bottom photo: a Bactrian camel in Mongolia’s Gobi Desert (cold desert). Question: What month of the year has the highest temperature and the lowest rainfall for each of the three types of deserts? Stepped Art Fig. 7-11, p. 149
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Climatogram
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Your Responsibilities
Research information pertaining to: Temperature range: Precipitation range: Soil properties: Plants: Animals: Other details about the biome: Refer to slide 2 for a list of required biomes. Also look up the human impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems (K 2) Next slides discuss Aquatic Systems Research influence of human activity on marine ecosystems: including coastal waters, oceans, and coral reefs. Your Responsibilities
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Euphotic Zone Continental shelf
High tide Low tide Sun Depth in meters Coastal Zone Open Sea Sea level Photosynthesis 50 Euphotic Zone Estuarine Zone 100 Continental shelf 200 500 Bathyal Zone Twilight 1,000 1,500 2,000 Water temperature drops rapidly between the euphotic zone and the abyssal zone in an area called the thermocline . Abyssal Zone 3,000 Figure 8.5 Natural capital: major life zones and vertical zones (not drawn to scale) in an ocean. Actual depths of zones may vary. Available light determines the euphotic, bathyal and abyssal zones. Temperature zones also vary with depth, shown here by the red curve. Question: How is an ocean like a rain forest? (Hint: see Figure 7-17, p. 156.) Darkness 4,000 5,000 10,000 5 10 15 20 25 30 Water temperature (°C) Fig. 8-5, p. 166
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Sunlight Blue-winged teal Painted turtle Green frog Muskrat Pond snail
Littoral zone Plankton Figure 8.15 Distinct zones of life in a fairly deep temperate zone lake. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: How are deep lakes like tropical rain forests? (Hint: See Figure 7-17, p. 156) Limnetic zone Diving beetle Profundal zone Northern pike Benthic zone Yellow perch Bloodworms Fig. 8-15, p. 175
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Lake Rain and snow Glacier Rapids Waterfall Tributary Flood plain
Oxbow lake Salt marsh Deposited sediment Delta Ocean Source Zone Transition Zone Figure 8.17 Three zones in the downhill flow of water: source zone containing mountain (headwater) streams; transition zone containing wider, lower-elevation streams; and floodplain zone containing rivers, which empty into the ocean. Water Sediment Floodplain Zone Fig. 8-17, p. 176
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What are the main components and characteristics of ecosystems and how are they structured?
The characteristics of ecosystems in terms of their biotic and abiotic components (soil, temperature, rainfall, photosynthesis, net primary productivity, succession, biomass, biodiversity, trophic levels, food chains and webs, habitats and niches). The interaction of these components to be illustrated through relative size of the flows and stores of nutrients between vegetation, litter and soil.
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Range of Tolerance Lower limit of tolerance Higher limit of tolerance
No organisms Few organisms Few organisms No organisms Abundance of organisms Population size Figure 3.10 Range of tolerance for a population of organisms, such as fish, to an abiotic environmental factor—in this case, temperature. These restrictions keep particular species from taking over an ecosystem by keeping their population size in check. Question: Which scientific principle of sustainability (see back cover) is related to the range of tolerance concept? Zone of intolerance Zone of physiological stress Optimum range Zone of physiological stress Zone of intolerance Low Temperature High Fig. 3-10, p. 58
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NICHES: the role you fill
Trophic level Producer / autotroph Consumer / heterotroph Herbivore, carnivore/omnivore, 3° consumer, decomposer What do you provide/do for ecosystem/habitat Pollinator Provide shelter Nutrient cycler Trap soil Absorb nutrients
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Niche separation Niche breadth
Specialist species with a narrow niche Generalist species with a broad niche Niche separation Number of individuals Figure 4.11 Specialist species such as the giant panda have a narrow niche (left) and generalist species such as a raccoon have a broad niche (right). Niche breadth Region of niche overlap Resource use Fig. 4-11, p. 91
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surface water in search of small crustaceans, insects, and seeds
Ruddy turnstone searches under shells and pebbles for small invertebrates Dowitcher probes deeply into mud in search of snails, marine worms, and small crustaceans Black skimmer seizes small fish at water surface Brown pelican dives for fish, which it locates from the air Herring gull is a tireless scavenger Avocet sweeps bill through mud and surface water in search of small crustaceans, insects, and seeds Flamingo feeds on minute organisms in mud Scaup and other diving ducks feed on mollusks, crustaceans, and aquatic vegetation Louisiana heron wades into water to seize small fish Oystercatcher feeds on clams, mussels, and other shellfish into which it pries its narrow beak Knot (sandpiper) picks up worms and small crustaceans left by receding tide Piping plover feeds on insects and tiny crustaceans on sandy beaches Figure 4.13 Specialized feeding niches of various bird species in a coastal wetland. This specialization reduces competition and allows sharing of limited resources. Fig. 4-13, p. 93
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Primary productivity is the amount of photosynthesis / time.
Energy Photosynthesis Net Primary Production Biomass Energy Diagrams Food chain Food Web Energy Pyramid 10 % Rule 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 Draw a picture representing the molecules. Use colored pencils for each element. Translate this chemical formula into a sentence using words. Primary productivity is the amount of photosynthesis / time. NPP: Amount of biomass produced minus amount of energy lost to cellular respiration
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Photosynthesis 6 CO2 + 6 H20 → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Is two separate reactions 1st Light reaction Chlorophyl is located in thylakoid membranes Light energy splits H20 and enters a photosystem, located in thylakoid membranes Electrons move along photosystem Oxygen is byproduct 2 H20 → 4 H+ + 4e- + O2
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Photosynthesis 2nd reaction
Calvin Cycle (or alternative pathways) Carbon fixation – CO2 is “fixed” into an organic molecule like C6H12O6 Uses the H+ & energy from first reaction Occurs in stroma Rate of photosynthesis is dependant on light intensity, level of CO2, and temperature.
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Climbing monstera palm
Ocelot Blue and gold macaw Harpy eagle Squirrel monkeys Climbing monstera palm Katydid Green tree snake Slaty-tailed trogon Tree frog Figure 7.16 Some components and interactions in a tropical rain forest ecosystem. When these organisms die, decomposers break down their organic matter into minerals that plants use. Colored arrows indicate transfers of matter and energy between producers; primary consumers (herbivores); secondary, or higher-level, consumers (carnivores); and decomposers. Organisms are not drawn to scale. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Ants Bacteria Bromeliad Fungi Producer to primary consumer Primary to secondary consumer Secondary to higher-level consumer All producers and consumers to decomposers Fig. 7-16, p. 155
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Word bank: closed, cyclical flowchart, open, straight line flow chart
First Trophic Level Second Trophic Level Third Trophic Level Fourth Trophic Level Producers (plants) Primary consumers (herbivores) Secondary consumers (carnivores) Tertiary consumers (top carnivores) Heat Heat Heat Heat Solar energy Heat Figure 3.13 A food chain. The arrows show how chemical energy in nutrients flows through various trophic levels in energy transfers; most of the energy is degraded to heat, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: Think about what you ate for breakfast. At what level or levels on a food chain were you eating? Heat Heat Decomposers and detritus feeders Flow of energy is __________ system and can be represented by a ____________ Flow of matter is a __________ system and can be represented by a _____________? Fig. 3-13, p. 62
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Usable energy available
at each trophic level (in kilocalories) Heat Tertiary consumers (human) 10 Heat Secondary consumers (perch) 100 Heat Decomposers Heat Primary consumers (zooplankton) 1,000 Figure 3.15 Generalized pyramid of energy flow showing the decrease in usable chemical energy available at each succeeding trophic level in a food chain or web. In nature, ecological efficiency varies from 2% to 40%, with 10% efficiency being common. This model assumes a 10% ecological efficiency (90% loss of usable energy to the environment, in the form of low-quality heat) with each transfer from one trophic level to another. Question: Why is a vegetarian diet more energy efficient than a meat-based diet? Heat 10,000 Producers (phytoplankton) Fig. 3-15, p. 63
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Nutrient Cycles Water Carbon Nitrogen Phosphorus Sulfur
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Global warming Condensation Ice and snow Condensation Evaporation from land Evaporation from ocean Precipitation to land Transpiration from plants Surface runoff Increased flooding from wetland destruction Precipitation to ocean Runoff Lakes and reservoirs Reduced recharge of aquifers and flooding from covering land with crops and buildings Point source pollution Infiltration and percolation into aquifer Surface runoff Groundwater movement (slow) Ocean Aquifer depletion from overpumping Figure 3.17 Natural capital: simplified model of the hydrologic cycle with major harmful impacts of human activities shown in red. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the hydrologic cycle? Processes Processes affected by humans Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Fig. 3-17, p. 66
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Carbon dioxide in atmosphere Respiration Photosynthesis Burning fossil fuels Forest fires Diffusion Animals (consumers) Deforestation Plants (producers) Carbon in plants (producers) Transportation Respiration Carbon in animals (consumers) Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean Decomposition Carbon in fossil fuels Marine food webs Producers, consumers, decomposers Figure 3.18 Natural capital: simplified model of the global carbon cycle, with major harmful impacts of human activities shown by red arrows. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which you directly or indirectly affect the carbon cycle? Carbon in limestone or dolomite sediments Compaction Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Fig. 3-18, p. 68
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Processes Nitrogen in atmosphere Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Denitrification by bacteria Electrical storms Nitrogen oxides from burning fuel and using inorganic fertilizers Nitrogen in animals (consumers) Volcanic activity Nitrification by bacteria Nitrogen in plants (producers) Nitrates from fertilizer runoff and decomposition Decomposition Uptake by plants Figure 3.19 Natural capital: simplified model of the nitrogen cycle with major harmful human impacts shown by red arrows. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which you directly or indirectly affect the nitrogen cycle? Nitrate in soil Nitrogen loss to deep ocean sediments Nitrogen in ocean sediments Bacteria Ammonia in soil Fig. 3-19, p. 69
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Processes Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Phosphates in sewage Phosphates in fertilizer Plate tectonics Phosphates in mining waste Runoff Runoff Sea birds Runoff Phosphate in rock (fossil bones, guano) Erosion Ocean food webs Animals (consumers) Phosphate dissolved in water Phosphate in shallow ocean sediments Phosphate in deep ocean sediments Figure 3.21 Natural capital: simplified model of the phosphorus cycle, with major harmful human impacts shown by red arrows. Question: What are three ways in which you directly or indirectly affect the phosphorus cycle? Plants (producers) Bacteria Fig. 3-21, p. 71
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Sulfur dioxide in atmosphere Sulfuric acid and Sulfate deposited as acid rain Smelting Burning coal Refining fossil fuels Sulfur in animals (consumers) Dimethyl sulfide a bacteria byproduct Sulfur in plants (producers) Mining and extraction Uptake by plants Decay Sulfur in ocean sediments Figure 3.22 Natural capital: simplified model of the sulfur cycle, with major harmful impacts of human activities shown by red arrows. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What are three ways in which your lifestyle directly or indirectly affects the sulfur cycle? Decay Processes Sulfur in soil, rock and fossil fuels Reservoir Pathway affected by humans Natural pathway Fig. 3-22, p. 72
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Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth’s Biodiversity
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Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of Species in a Particular Place
Species richness Species evenness Diversity varies with geographical location Most species-rich communities Tropical rain forests Coral reefs Ocean bottom zone Large tropical lakes
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Variations in Species Richness and Species Evenness
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Relationships Predator/prey Symbiosis Competition
Can cause coevolution Symbiosis Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism Competition Drives evolution
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Population curves Environmental resistance Carrying capacity (K)
Population stabilizes Population size Exponential growth Figure 5.11 No population can continue to increase in size indefinitely. Exponential growth (left half of the curve) occurs when resources are not limiting and a population can grow at its intrinsic rate of increase (r) or biotic potential. Such exponential growth is converted to logistic growth, in which the growth rate decreases as the population becomes larger and faces environmental resistance. Over time, the population size stabilizes at or near the carrying capacity (K) of its environment, which results in a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve. Depending on resource availability, the size of a population often fluctuates around its carrying capacity, although a population may temporarily exceed its carrying capacity and then suffer a sharp decline or crash in its numbers. See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What is an example of environmental resistance that humans have not been able to overcome? Biotic potential Time (t) Fig. 5-11, p. 111
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Number of sheep (millions)
2.0 Population overshoots carrying capacity Carrying capacity 1.5 Population recovers and stabilizes Population runs out of resources and crashes Number of sheep (millions) 1.0 Exponential growth .5 Figure 5.12 Logistic growth of a sheep population on the island of Tasmania between 1800 and After sheep were introduced in 1800, their population grew exponentially, thanks to an ample food supply. By 1855, they had overshot the land’s carrying capacity. Their numbers then stabilized and fluctuated around a carrying capacity of about 1.6 million sheep. 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 Year Fig. 5-12, p. 111
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Population Cycles for the Snowshoe Hare and Canada Lynx
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Primary Succession Balsam fir, paper birch, and Jack pine,
Figure 5.16 Primary ecological succession. Over almost a thousand years, plant communities developed, starting on bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier on Isle Royal, Michigan (USA) in northern Lake Superior. The details of this process vary from one site to another. Question: What are two ways in which lichens, mosses, and plants might get started growing on bare rock? Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce forest community Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Heath mat Small herbs and shrubs Lichens and mosses Exposed rocks Time Fig. 5-16, p. 116
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Secondary Succession Mature oak and hickory forest Young pine forest
Figure 5.17 Natural ecological restoration of disturbed land. Secondary ecological succession of plant communities on an abandoned farm field in the U.S. state of North Carolina. It took 150–200 years after the farmland was abandoned for the area to become covered with a mature oak and hickory forest. A new disturbance, such as deforestation or fire, would create conditions favoring pioneer species such as annual weeds. In the absence of new disturbances, secondary succession would recur over time, but not necessarily in the same sequence shown here. Questions: Do you think the annual weeds (left) would continue to thrive in the mature forest (right)? Why or why not? See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Mature oak and hickory forest Young pine forest with developing understory of oak and hickory trees Shrubs and small pine seedlings Perennial weeds and grasses Annual weeds Time Fig. 5-17, p. 117
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