1. CHAPTER 3 Research in Psychology: Methods and Design

2. Chapter Objectives
Describe the defining features of a theory in psychology
Describe how theories: (a) lead to empirical research, (b) are influenced by the outcomes of research, and (c) need to be productive, parsimonious, and testable
Understand the importance of the “What’s next?” question and the value of research that simultaneously replicates and extends prior research

3. Chapter Objectives Show how creative thinking occurs in science
Use computerized databases (e.g., PsycINFO) to search for information about research in psychology
Read and understand elements of an empirical journal article

4. Varieties of Psychological Research
Basic vs. Applied Research
Basic
designed to describe and understand fundamental
psychological phenomena. Examples: neural correlates of
cognition, behavior, mechanisms of selective attention
(dichotic listening)
Applied
designed to shed light on the solution to real-world
problems. Example: effect of cell phone use on driving
Surveillance video***

5. Varieties of Psychological Research
Laboratory
greater control
minimal mundane realism
Field
more realistic
maximum mundane realism
Experimental realism – the extent to which the study has
an impact on the subjects, forces them to take the matter
seriously, and involves them in the procedures.
Mundane realism- how closely a study mirrors real life
experiences

6. Varieties of Psychological Research
Quantitative
Includes quantitative data and statistical analysis
Qualitative
Includes narrative descriptions, content analyses, interviews
Much research includes elements of both
Depression, anxiety studies

7. Developing Research Ideas: Asking Empirical Questions
Answerable with data
Terms precisely defined
Operational definitions
variables defined in terms of a clearly specified set of operations
Hunger : 12 hours without food
Aggression: car honks, delivering shocks, # of fights on playground
Especially important for animal research
Important for replication
Converging operations
Understanding increases as studies with different operational definitions “converge” on the same result

8. Where to Research Ideas Come From?
Our own observations
Kitty Genovese (1964) Bystander effect
Sometimes from serendipitous events (discovering something while looking for something else)
Hubel and Wiesel (1959, 1962): “edge detectors”

9. Developing Research from Theory
The nature of theory
Summarizes, organizes, explains, provides basis for predictions regarding a particular phenomenon
Includes constructs  hypothetical factors not observed directly; involved in the attempt at explanation
e.g., cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957)
The relationship between theory and data
Hypotheses deduced from theory; reasoning from general statements to make predictions (hypotheses)
Outcomes/data provide or fail to provide inductive support for theory
theories are never “true” nor “false”; more like “working truths” or “true until proven false”

10. Developing Research from Theory
Attributes of good theories
Productivity
good theories produce much research and advance our knowledge
e.g., cognitive dissonance theory
Falsification
good theories can be shown to be wrong (fail to be supported by the data)
Although researchers want to be right, still attempt to falsify their own work.
Parsimony
good theories are concise and provide a simple explanation for results
Clever Hans
Simpler (more “parsimonious”) explanation

11. Clever Hans: The Story
Wilhelm Von Osten believed that horses would prove to be as intelligent as people if only they were given a proper education
Spent 4 years tutoring Hans using a method from German schools
Hans could answer questions about history, arithmetic, etc even in languages he could not understand. Hoof tapping.
Oskar Pfungst : psychologist

12. Converting Ideas to Hypotheses and Theories
Wilhelm van Osten and his horse, Hans. Germany, beginning of 20th century.

13. Developing Research from Theory
Misunderstandings about theories
“It’s not a fact; it’s only a theory.”
“It’s just a theory; there’s no proof.”
“Here’s my theory about that.”

14. Developing Research from Other Research
Research teams and the “What’s Next?” Question
Programs of research
Series of interrelated studies
Research teams and the apprentice model
Replication and extension
Exact replication rare
The norm in Pavlov’s lab, to train new workers
Extension  partial replication, with new features added to extend the findings

15. Reviewing the Literature
Computerized database searches
In psychology  PsycINFO/ Google Scholar
Search tips
Using truncated search terms to avoid being too narrow
Search results
Take note of source (e.g., journal article, book, dissertation)
Read Abstracts provided when you click on the title

16. Sections of a Scientific Paper
Cover Page
Abstract
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
References
Tables & Figures