1. Effects of the Industrial Revolution

3. British Industrialization
By the middle of the 19th century, industrialization had spread across Europe and the United States, aided by the development of railroad links that brought resources to the new factories and transported their finished goods to world markets.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Great Britain invested considerable resources in its wars with America and with Napoleon’s empire. These conflicts, however, did not impede Britain’s ability to trade with the rest of the world. The British navy protected the island nation from invasion, allowing internal trade to continue and grow. The British even managed to profit from war by increasing production of war supplies to sell to their allies.

4. Travel The social classes traveled in different manners as well.
The lithographs shown in this slide (produced by A. J. C. Bourne in 1839) depict (from top to bottom) first-, second-, and third-class travel.

5. The Growth of the Railroads
Newbiggin Bridge
These drawings show us the status of rail infrastructure at the end of the 18th century. This depot and bridge still exist today, so we know the drawings are quite accurate.
During this era, a passenger could travel up to 44 miles each day. While train travel represented an enormous improvement in the speed of travel, it was only the beginning of mass transportation.
Opening of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway

7. British Dominance Rail lines in England
At the beginning of the 19th century, Britain had more rail lines and major urban centers than any other country. While London was the economic center of England and the British empire, the Industrial Revolution had transformed many other towns and cities into large urban centers. Particularly important were the northern cities of Manchester and Leeds.

9. Urbanization

16. Population Density USA 1820 1840 1860

17. Third World vs. Developed

21. World Economy GDP/capita

22. GDP Per Capita

24. Energy Source

27. Greenhouse Gases

28. Co2 Per Country

31. Acid Rain

34. Rules
(1) The normal working day begins at all seasons at 6 A.M. precisely and ends, after the usual break of half an hour for breakfast, an hour for dinner and half an hour for tea, at 7 P.M., and it shall be strictly observed.
Five minutes before the beginning of the stated hours of work until their actual commencement, a bell shall ring and indicated that every worker has to proceed to his place of work, in order to start as soon as the bell stops.
The doorkeeper shall lock the door punctually at 6 A.M., 8:30 A.M., 1 P.M., and 4:30 P.M.
Workers arriving two minutes late shall lose half an hour's wages; whoever is more than 2 minutes late may not start work until after the next break, or at least shall lose his wages until then. Any disputes about the correct time shall be settled by the clock mounted above the gatekeeper's lodge.
These rules are valid both for time- and for piece-workers, and in cases of breaches of these rules, workmen shall be fined in proportion to their earnings. The deductions from the wage shall be entered in the wage-book of the gatekeeper whose duty they are; they shall be unconditionally accepted as it will not be possible to enter into any discussions about them.

35. Factory Rules in Berlin (1844)
In every large works, and in the coordination of any large number of workmen, good order and harmony must be looked upon as the fundamentals of success, and therefore the following rules shall be strictly observed.
Every man employed shall receive a copy of these rules, so that no one can plead ignorance. Its acceptance shall be deemed to mean consent to submit to its regulations. (
(2) When the bell is rung to denote the end of the working day, every workman, both on piece- and on day-wage, shall leave his workshop and the yard, but is not allowed to make preparations for his departure before the bell rings. Every breach of this rule shall lead to a fine of five silver groschen to the sick fund. Only those who have obtained special permission by the overseer may stay on in the workshop in order to work. If a workman has worked beyond the closing bell, he must give his name to the gatekeeper on leaving, on pain of losing his payment for the overtime.
(3) No workman, whether employed by time or piece, may leave before the end of the working day, without having first received permission from the overseer and having given his name to the gatekeeper. Omission of these two actions shall lead to a fine of ten silver groschen payable to the sick fund.
(4) Repeated irregular arrival at work shall lead to dismissal. This shall apply also to those who are found idling by an official or overseer, and refuse to obey their order to resume work.

36. (5) Entry to the firm's property by any but the designated gateway, and exit by any prohibited route, e.g. by climbing fences or walls, or by crossing the Spree [River], shall be punished by a fine of fifteen silver groschen to the sick fund for the first offences, and dismissal for the second.
(6) No worker may leave his place of work otherwise than for reasons connected with his work.
(7) All conversation with fellow-workers is prohibited; if any worker requires information about his work, he must turn to the overseer, or to the particular fellow-worker designated for the purpose.

37. 8) Smoking in the workshops or in the yard is prohibited during working hours; anyone caught smoking shall be fined five silver groschen for the sick fund for every such offence.
(9) Every worker is responsible for cleaning up his space in the workshop, and if in doubt, he is to turn to his overseer. All tools must always be kept in good condition, and must be cleaned after use. This applies particularly to the turner, regarding his lathe.

38. (10) Natural functions must be performed at the appropriate places, and whoever is found soiling walls, fences, squares, etc., and similarly, whoever is found washing his face and hands in the workshop and not in the places assigned for the purpose, shall be fined five silver groschen for the sick fund.
(11) On completion of his piece of work, every workman must hand it over at once to his foreman or superior, in order to receive a fresh piece of work. Pattern makers must on account hand over their patterns to the foundry without express order of their supervisors. No workman may take over work from his fellow-workman without instruction to that effect by the foreman.
(12) It goes without saying that all overseers and officials of the firm shall be obeyed without question, and shall be treated with due deference. Disobedience will be punished by dismissal.
(13) Immediate dismissal shall also be the fate of anyone found drunk in any of the workshops.

39. (18) Advances shall be granted only to the older workers, and even to them only in exceptional circumstances. As long as he is working by the piece, the workman is entitled merely to his fixed weekly wage as subsistence pay; the extra earnings shall be paid out only on completion of the whole piece contract. If a workman leaves before his piece contract is completed, either of his own free will, or on being dismissed as punishment, or because of illness, the partly completed work shall be valued by the general manager with the help of two overseers, and he will be paid accordingly. There is no appeal against the decision of these experts.
(19) A free copy of these rules is handed to every workman, but whoever loses it and requires a new one, or cannot produce it on leaving, shall be fined 2½ silver groschen, payable to the sick fund.

40. (14) Untrue allegations against superiors or officials
(14) Untrue allegations against superiors or officials shall lead to stern reprimand, and may lead to dismissal. The same punishment shall be meted out to those who knowingly allow errors to slip through when supervising or stocktaking.
(15) Every workman is obliged to report to his superiors any acts of dishonesty or embezzlement on the part of his fellow workmen. If he omits to do so, and it is shown after subsequent discovery of a misdemeanor that he knew about it at the time, he shall be liable to be taken to court as an accessory after the fact and the wage due to him shall be retained as a punishment. Conversely, anyone denouncing a theft in such a way as to allow conviction of the thief shall receive a reward of two Thaler, and, if necessary, his name shall be kept confidential. --Further, the gatekeeper and the watchman, as well as every official, are entitled to search the baskets, parcels, aprons etc. of the women and children who are taking dinners into the works, on their departure, as well as search any worker suspected of stealing any article whatever

41. Labor Conditions
Laborers often worked in dangerous and hazardous conditions for long hours at low pay
In the illustrations in this slide, workers are shown laboring in the shallow tunnels of late 18th-century mines. Notice that a woman is in the front in the lower picture. Female mine workers often suffered abuse at the hands of male workers.

42. Factory children attend a Sunday school
Child Labor
Factories employed many children, benefiting not just from their energy but also from their small fingers, which could manipulate tiny parts of machines more easily. Factories could also legally pay children less than adults, and parents were often eager to send their children to work and bring in more income for the family.
Children as young as four years old worked long, difficult days for very little pay. Children sometimes worked up to 19 hours a day with single breaks of one hour or less.
Factory children attend a Sunday school

44. “Scavengers” and “piecers”
Child Labor: Dangers
The smallest and youngest children in textile factories usually worked as scavengers. This very dangerous task involved picking up tiny pieces of loose cotton from under the machinery.
Working conditions in British mines were perhaps even worse. An 1842 Parliamentary Committee reporting on mines found that many children were working under intolerable circumstances. Children as young as four years old worked as “trappers,” opening underground doors to let “hurriers” (also children) pull through loaded wagons. Often working in the dark because they could not afford candles, children labored in these conditions up to 12 hours a day. The Parliamentary Committee further reported that miners beat the children for falling asleep on the job.
“Scavengers” and “piecers”

45. Child Labor: Punishment
Malnourishment
Beatings
Runaways sent to prison
Child laborers, most of whom came from severely impoverished backgrounds frequently found it impossible to keep up with the pace required in the factories—primarily because they were often malnourished and debilitated. Many children were beaten for falling behind. They were also beaten or docked pay for arriving to work late and for talking to other children. Apprentices who ran away from factories sometimes faced prison sentences.
Despite terrible working conditions, meager pay, and vicious punishments, family poverty forced many children to go to work.

46. Child Labor: Movements to Regulate
Factory owners argued that child labor was good for the economy and helped build children's characters
Factory Act of 1833: limited child labor and the number of hours children could work in textile mills
In 1833, the British government passed the Factory Act to improve conditions for child laborers in textile factories. The act stipulated the following:
No child under nine years of age was permitted to work.
Employers had to have a medical or age certificate for each child laborer.
Children between the ages of nine and thirteen could not work more than nine hours a day.
Children between 13 and 18 could not work more than 12 hours a day.
Children could not work at night.
Each child had to receive at least two hours of school per day.
Four factory inspectors were appointed to enforce the law throughout the whole country.
Despite these conditions, the Factory Act did not put an immediate stop to mistreatment because it only applied to children working in textile mills, not coal mines or other types of factories.
The Mines Act of 1842 established restrictions on child mine labor, barring children under ten from working in the mines.

47. Fertility Rate

48. The Luddites
Some disgruntled workers broke into factories & destroyed machines
Many workers expressed outrage over low wages and the employment of unapprenticed workmen, who did not share the privileges and higher wages of apprenticed workmen. Some of these disgruntled workers, who later came to be called Luddites, broke into factories and destroyed machines. The Luddites referred to themselves as the “Army of Redressers”; their leader was “General Ned Ludd,” although there is little evidence to suggest that he was a real person. The impact of the Luddite movement, however, was felt through the destruction of equipment throughout the Midlands. In a matter of weeks, 200 machines were destroyed and special police units had to be hired to protect factories. The Prince Regent offered a reward (shown in this notice in this slide) to anyone "giving information on any person or persons wickedly breaking the frames.” Today, the term “Luddite” refers to a person who is opposed to new technology.

49. Trade Unions The Tolpuddle Martyrs
Agricultural laborers who had formed a trade union in the village of Tolpuddle were arrested on false charges and sent to the British colony of Australia.
By the end of the 19th century, labor conditions had greatly improved. These improvements, however, had only been achieved with pressure from workers, who increasingly protested their terrible working conditions. Workers eventually organized their gatherings and protests into trade unions.
In 1780 and 1799, Combination Laws made it illegal for workers to gather together to pressure employers for shorter hours, higher pay, or better working conditions. As a result, trade unions in effect became illegal.

50. Labor Unions Sir Francis Burdett The 1871 Trade Union Act
In the cartoon shown in this slide, Sir Francis Burdett is depicted as triumphant over the industrialists and anti-union politicians who hindered the cause of trade unions. They are shown in front of a jail where many trade unionists were incarcerated. Burdett had been a leading parliamentary supporter of unions in the 1820s. He was jailed for a short time because of his radical views.
Many extremely violent strikes occurred before 1870, leading to hundreds or perhaps thousands of injuries and deaths. The government, led by Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, appointed a Royal Commission to investigate the trade unions.
As a result of the Royal Commission’s work, Parliament passed the Trade Union Act of 1871, recognizing the collective or corporate identity of trade unions and effectively legalizing them. Trade unions were thereafter allowed to organize all of their own activities. As a result of this law, trade unions could sign contracts, enter into agreements, and function as legal entities (not simply as gatherings of people); in addition, they could exercise all these rights without punishment or prosecution. Trade unions also received exemptions and immunities: for example, judges would not intervene during strikes.

51. The Chartists Political reformers
A number of different protest groups emerged in the middle of the 19th century. Some complained peacefully, while others used sabotage and violence.
The Chartists were members of a political reform movement that promoted the adoption of a “People's Charter.” This document called for:
voting by ballot
universal male suffrage
annual parliaments
equal electoral districts
no property qualifications for members of Parliament
The Chartist movement gathered momentum in large part due to the fervor and speaking talents of Feargus O'Connor. He traveled all over northern England—a highly industrialized region where recurrent economic depressions had caused considerable discontent—to garner support for the charter. In August of 1838, the charter was adopted at a national convention of labor organizations in Birmingham. The movement continued to grow for decades and greatly influenced the struggle for universal male voting rights.
Political reformers
Chartists wanted the government to adopt a “People’s Charter”
Adopted by national convention of labor organizations in 1838
Influenced the struggle for universal voting rights

52. The “Peterloo Massacre”
The most celebrated protest of the early 19th century was the “Peterloo Massacre” of On August 16, 1819, laborers advocating annual parliaments planned a meeting to agitate for universal suffrage. A crowd of about 50,000 gathered in St. Peter’s Fields to listen to several speakers. By early afternoon, the length and size of the meeting so alarmed city magistrates that they ordered armed troops in the Lancashire militia to arrest some of the organizers and disperse the crowd. The soldiers ended up charging and firing upon the crowd, however, killing 11 and wounding approximately 400 others.
Different sources reported different crowd sizes, but it was undoubtedly well-attended. Here are some of the estimates:
Thomas Tatton, Magistrate, testimony at Hunt's trial, March 1820: 30,000 people
William Hulton, Magistrate, testimony at Hunt's trial, March 1820: 50,000 people
Lord Castlereagh, speech in Parliament: 70,000 people
Samuel Bamford, Passages in the Life of a Radical: 80,000 people
John Tyas, The Times: 80,000 people
George Swift, letter to brother, August 1819: 130,000 people
Henry Huntspeech on September : 150,000 people
Richard Carlile,The Republican: 150,000 people
James Wroe, Manchester Observer: 153,000 people
1819

54. Triangle Shirtwaist Fire
The fire caused the deaths of 146 garment workers – 123 women and 23 men – who died from the fire, smoke inhalation, or falling or jumping to their deaths. Most of the victims were recent Jewish and Italian immigrant women aged sixteen to twenty-three; of the victims whose ages are known, the oldest victim was Providenza Panno at 43, and the youngest were 14-year-olds Kate Leone and "Sara" Rosaria Maltese. The factory normally employed about 500 workers, mostly young immigrant women, who worked nine hours a day on weekdays plus seven hours on Saturdays, earning between $7 and $12 a week.

55. The New Industrial Class Structure
The social class structure that emerged during the Industrial Revolution can be broken down as follows:
Upper Class: Very rich industrial families; nobles
Upper Middle Class: Businesspeople and professionals, including lawyers and doctors
Lower Middle Class: Other professionals, including teachers, shop owners, and office workers
Working Class: Factory workers and small farmers
Impoverished: Itinerant workers and the unemployed
The New Middle Class
The New Working Class

56. Lower and Middle Class Housing
Working class housing:
In the rush to build houses for workers moving to the cities, builders quickly constructed tenements. These row apartment houses tended to be overcrowded and unsanitary, and landlords did not adequately maintain them. In one typical example, 17 people from different families lived in a 15 by 12 foot area. Some tenements had yards in the back with an outdoor toilet that all residents used.
Middle class housing:
Although its residents were wealthier, emerging middle class districts still suffered from the poor sanitation that plagued entire cities. Disease spread quickly through cities, without regard to social distinctions.
Tenements

57. Rise of Big Business
With new technology came the need for the investment of large amount of money into business
To acquire money, business owners sold stocks or shares in their company
Incorporating allowed less risk
Corporations expand into many areas
( Are corporations people?)

58. New Economic Theories
New social and political philosophies arose as a response to increasing industrialization and changes in working conditions
In the following slides, we will look some of the leading economic thinkers from this period.

59. Adam Smith 1723–1790
Adam Smith laid the intellectual framework for the concept of the free market
Born in Scotland, Adam Smith is often considered the founder of economics as a discipline. In his 1776 book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith postulated that self-interest guides the most efficient use of resources in a nation's economy, and that public welfare occurs as a by-product of pursuit of economic self-interest. Smith then argued that government efforts to promote the social good are ineffective compared to unbridled market forces; he also opposed government interference in the economy. His most influential work was The Wealth of Nations, published in 1744.
Adam Smith and the other economic philosophers shown on the following slides addressed many fundamental economic issues related to the Industrial Revolution. Because many of these men predicted the negative outcomes of continued industrialization, economics became known at the time as the “dismal science.”

60. Thomas Malthus 1766–1834
In An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), Malthus predicted that the food supply would not meet the needs of the growing population
Thomas Malthus postulated that food shortages would decrease population, thus bringing the food supply into better balance with the remaining population. This balance, however, could be disrupted by rising birth rates, which would eventually cause food shortages to reappear.
Malthus further argued that the population’s demand for food would always keep the price of labor low because more individuals would enter the work force in search of funds to buy increasingly expensive food. Malthus believed that only “moral restraint” (including late marriage and sexual abstinence) could check excessive population growth.

61. David Ricardo 1772–1823 The “Iron Law of Wages”
David Ricardo’s “Iron Law of Wages” theorized that wages naturally tend toward a minimum level that corresponds to the subsistence needs of workers. Ricardo’s ideas were even more “dismal” than those of Malthus because he saw the working class as trapped in their subsistence-level conditions. He did not offer any convenient solutions to the cycle of poverty.

62. Competing Philosophies
Capitalism versus Communism/Socialism
VS.
Means of production=refers to physical, non-human inputs used in production—the factories, machines, and tools used to produce wealth ( Who should own them?????)

63. Capitalism
Capitalism- a.k.a. The Free Enterprise System, Market Economy, Free Market System, Laissez-Faire.
Individuals are free to make their own economic decisions, there is private ownership of the means of production, Government keeps its “hands off” the economy, Entrepreneurs start business, Investment of wealth for profit, the Middle Class or Bourgeoisie dominate
Capital = money (or anything) used to invest to make wealth

64. Laissez Faire Economics =
Policy that the government should keep its hands off the economy
What was the old way? Mercantilism- government regulations, tariffs, favorable balance of trade, govt. monopolies.
Adam Smith (a.k.a. “the Father of Capitalism” – Promoted laissez faire economics in Wealth of Nations

65. Communism/Socialism
Communism a.k.a. Socialism, Marxism, Leninism, Maoism
Communal or government controls or commands the economy, there is public ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, Working Class or Proletariat dominate, Ideally end result would be a classless society, Marx predicted a violent revolution to overthrow the Bourgeoisie (Socialism does not always stress necessity of violent revolution)

66. Karl Marx 1818–1883
Philosopher, social scientist, historian and revolutionary, Karl Marx is regarded by many as the most influential economic and social thinker of the 19th century a.k.a. “Father of Communism” promoted Communism/Socialism in the Communist Manifesto
Karl Marx theorized that the struggle between social classes was fundamental to society. He believed that society faced a constant struggle between the rich and the working classes, and that this class division could be blamed in large part on private ownership of the means of production (e.g., corporations, factories). In order for class conflict to be resolved, Marx believed that the major means of production had to be publicly owned.
Marx had a tremendous impact on the world’s political systems. Two of his most influential writings are:
The Communist Manifesto, written with Friedrich Engels in 1848, the same year as the revolutionary uproar that swept across Europe.
Das Kapital (The Capital), in which he outlined his economic theory in great detail.
Marx was eventually forced to move to London to avoid political persecution. He lived in poverty his entire life and died nearly penniless, despite having radically changed the political and economic foundations of Europe.

71. Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism – successful people were successful because they were more “fit to succeed than others. War allowed stronger nations to weed out weaker ones. Contributed to the rise of racism and imperialism

72. Social Mobility
This illustration of a “typical apartment” appeared in a Parisian newspaper in 1845
This illustration in this slide offers a classic example of the Industrial Revolution’s impact on housing and urban development (Bibliotheque National, Paris). Servants are shown working on the ground floor, while an elderly couple dances to music a young girl plays on the piano. On the first floor (known as the second floor in the United States), two wealthy people relax in elegant surroundings. Above them on the second floor, a bourgeois family lives in comfortable but somewhat crowded conditions.
The rooms on the third floor are smaller. In the room on the left, a landlord appears to be evicting a resident, while a man and woman in the other room entertain themselves with a small dog. The fourth floor is divided into three rooms. Two artists relax in the room on the left, a young man sits in the middle room, and a poor man and woman live with their three children in the room on the right.

73. USA

75. 19th-century women at work
During the Industrial Revolution, division of labor occurred along gender lines. Women had different jobs than men, although they participated in many of the same industries during this period. High poverty rates among both single and married women forced many to find work outside their homes in domestic service, textile factories, piecework shops (where workers were paid by the piece), and coal mines.
Some women found that new urban and rural work opportunities improved their way of life and gave them some extra spending money. Others encountered increased poverty, isolation, and dependence on employers for day-to-day sustenance.
19th-century women at work

81. Cultural Impact: Romanticism
The Romantics glorified the divine power of nature as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution’s achievement of controlling nature through technology.
Romanticism was a literary and artistic movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Romantics hailed individualism and creativity and rejected the mechanization of daily life that the Industrial Revolution had brought. They encouraged people to commune with nature and to allow themselves to experience greater emotional interaction and feeling.
Several well-known Romantic figures include:
William Wordsworth (English poet)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (English poet)
William Blake (English poet)
Ralph Waldo Emerson (American poet and essayist)
Henry David Thoreau (American essayist)
James Wyatt (English architect)
Robert Schumann (German composer)
Richard Wagner (German composer)
John Constable—a famous landscape artist who painted this scene, called the Hay Wain

82. Cultural Impact: The Visual Arts
French artist Honore Daumier painted the poor and working classes. In Third-Class Carriage (shown here), he illustrates with great compassion a group of people on a train journey.
Third-Class Carriage is an example of an Industrial Revolution-era artist addressing the social themes of the period. Before this time, the arts (especially painting) had been the province of the upper classes, who were generally uninterested in depictions of the poor.

83. Cultural Impact: The Visual Arts
J.M.W. Turner
The Fighting “Temeraire”
Romantic art often illustrated old idyllic scenes like sunsets, castles, or farms, along side steam trains, boats, or some other industrial element. The painting in this slide depicts the passing of a bygone era. The Temeraire was one of the ships that survived the Battle of Trafalgar and is being towed away to be destroyed by a modern steam tugboat.

84. Cultural Impact: Literature
Depiction of a scene from Oliver Twist
Charles Dickens’s literature defined the poverty of the Industrial Revolution. His works include Hard Times, Oliver Twist, Great Expectations, and A Christmas Carol.
Dickens’s writings contained many descriptions of urban life during the Industrial Revolution and illustrated the plight of the poor, whom he supported and championed throughout his career.
Charles Dickens (1812–1870)

85. Cultural Impact: Literature
Emile Zola
Emile Zola (1840–1902) was a French journalist who wrote about many of France’s most important social issues. His novel Germinal described the oppression and difficulties that confronted miners in a French village during the Industrial Revolution. This book culminates in a strike against the mining company.

86. Methodism John Wesley “Instant salvation”
Appealed to the working class
Many members of the working class were attracted to a new religious movement called Methodism, founded by John Wesley. Methodism was a simple doctrine stating that people could go to heaven by acting morally and believing in God. This idea of “instant salvation” appealed to the working classes, who had little time or money to devote to religious activities and donations. Methodism’s simple message comforted people who worked dangerous mine and factory jobs: these workers faced increasing economic insecurity in a rapidly industrializing world. Charismatic preachers spoke directly to people in English rather than in Latin and made them feel socially accepted. Revival meetings, which included singing and preaching, took place in cottages and barns.

89. France Couldn’t keep up with British industrialization
French Revolution and resulting political chaos hindered economic development
France began a phase of significant industrialization in 1836, when Eugène Schneider, a wealthy Alsatian businessman, began to produce railway equipment. In 1838, Schneider manufactured the first French locomotive, “la Gironde,” which made him very wealthy.
Despite this burst of industrial activity, the French Revolution and other uprisings in 1830 and 1848 significantly hindered France’s economic development.
The picture in this slide shows a barricade being put up during the July 1830 revolution in Paris.

90. French Industrialization after 1848
Government investment
Public spending
Telegraph
France and many other European countries experienced major political upheaval in 1848, collectively known as the Revolutions of By that year, France had industrialized considerably, particularly in major urban centers such as Paris. The end of the Revolutions of 1848 ushered in an even more significant era of French industrialization.
One of the initiators of this process had been Baron Haussman, who had replaced much of Paris’ medieval infrastructure after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, installing modern urban facilities such as boulevards, parks, and transportation. These changes served as a model for the entire country after 1848.
The French government installed sewers, market places, new neighborhoods, roads, a railroad system, and port facilities. By 1870, telegraph wires had been installed throughout most parts of France. These modernization efforts enabled France to attract foreign investors who could fund more industrialization projects.
A. Braun, Rue de Rivoli, 1855 or after

91. Germany The Zollverein Tariffs
The Industrial Revolution began about a century later in Germany than it did in England. The Zollverein (German for “customs union”) united 38 German states in 1834 and created a better trade flow by reducing internal tariffs and competition. (Tariffs are charges for goods that cross a geographical boundary.)
In 1818, Prussia became the first German state to abolish internal tariffs. By 1834, the Zollverein united 18 German states in a “customs union” (comparable to a free trade zone like the North American Free Trade Agreement today). The Zollverein eventually eliminated tariffs between almost all German states. Trade between these states was therefore not taxed, but trade between these states and non-Zollverein members was subject to tariffs, which a central agency collected and then distributed to each German state in proportion to its population and resources.

92. Electricity: Edison Thomas Edison
Thomas Edison’s greatest challenge was the development of a practical incandescent electric light. Contrary to popular belief, he didn't “invent” the light bulb but instead improved upon a 50-year-old idea.
In 1879, using low-current electricity, a small carbonized filament, and an improved vacuum inside a glass sphere, he was able to produce a reliable, long-lasting source of light.
The earliest electric lighting was very dim compared to gas or oil lighting. This disadvantage meant that it was some time before electric lighting became an acceptable option for most people. Electric lighting’s convenience and cleanliness, combined with the added security it provided towns and cities at night, made it popular by the end of the century.

93. Electricity: Tesla
In the 1880s, electrical engineer Nicholas Tesla perfected the principles of alternating current. The electric coil, or the Tesla coil, keeps the current consistent in the power lines.
Tesla’s innovation allowed for safer lighting and power delivery to major urban centers. It also had a significant impact on industry because it provided factories with increasingly dependable sources of power.

95. Was the Industrial Revolution more
SUMMARY
Was the Industrial Revolution more
beneficial or harmful?
The Industrial Revolution changed Western society significantly. Consider the following:
--Thousands of people moved from rural to urban centers where manufacturing was located. This led to crowding and the creation of slums in the cities.
--New social class divisions emerged including a new wealthy “bourgeoisie” (middle class), the owners of the factories and other industrial enterprises, as well as a new lower working class, which often had poor working conditions and lived in poverty.
--Industrialization brought significantly high levels of environmental pollution. The burning of coal for energy and home heating often blackened city skies.
--Increased food production and manufactured goods meant greater availability and lower prices. This meant economic improvement for many people in the industrialized countries and a higher standard of living. By 1900, many people in the Western world consumed more and lived longer than their predecessors.
(The teacher can discuss the question on the slide with the class.)