1. Perspectives on Personality
Classical Perspectives:
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
Contemporary Perspectives:
Trait
Social-cognitive (learning theories of personality)
Self
Gordon Allport ( )
generally considered founder of modern personality psychology
thought psychoanalysis = too deep, behaviorism = not deep enough

2. Module 34 – Contemporary Perspectives on Personality
The Trait Perspective
and
The Social Cognitive Perspective
ASK--- can you describe me your best friend:
Answer: Evaluate him/her on a number o basic traits.
Traits-- -chracateristics:
Just like decribing objectives:
Apple : large /small, red /yellow, Sour/sweet
Try to describe characteristics of humans on a variety of pre-identified dimensions.

3. The Trait Perspective (G. Allport, 1919)
People’s behaviors follow a set of characteristic patterns
There are a limited number of TYPES of behavior patterns
People can be effectively described by set of behavior patterns: Traits
Definition: Trait is a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act (concious motives)
Traits can be assessed by self-report inventories or peer reports
We are each a unique complex multiple traits.
Allport was the first person to come up with this idea. Indeed origitnated after his brief meeting with Freud.
Seeing his obsession in trying to explain human persoanlity by underlying/hidden motives, Allport decided to do the opposite–
study behavior patterns (driven by concious motives)
Traits: People’s characteristic behaviors and concious motives (Allport, 1919)
The trait approach makes two important assumptions:
Personality consists of traits that are unique to each individual.
Traits are stable and enduring dispositions.
---- describe personality in terms of traits (rather than explaining, behavior)
These tendencies mix in different proportions to create different personalities.
(by placing individuals on several dimensions simultaneously – can describe countless individual personality dimensions)
How do we decide which traits are most important?
3 main approaches:
1. lexical approach
2. statistical approach
3. theoretical approach

4. Traits tend to cluster together
People who have one trait tend to have a cluster of characteristics that go together
Outgoing people tend to: like excitement, like to be with others, like practical jokes, dislike spending time for introspection
We may be able to identify a few dimensions of traits that help us describe a person’s characteristic ways of acting and feeling
1.all important individual differences have been encoded within language over time
meaningful differences noticed  words invented to discuss differences
e.g. dominant, creative, reliable, cooperative, hot-tempered, self-centered, etc. etc. etc...
a ‘natural selection’ amongst words
Originally identified TRAITS from the ENGLİSH dictionary --- adjectives used to describe individuals (Allport)
The English vocabulary contains nearly 20,000 trait terms. But there is a lot of redundancy among them (sociable, outgoing).
2. start with pool of personality items (e.g. lexical approach)
have large number of people rate selves on traits then look at how they cluster----
factor analysis: statistical procedure that identifies groups of items that covary, but do not covary with other groups
3. theory dictates which traits are important to measure
e.g. Maslow’s self-actualization theory
predicts differences in motivation to self-actualize
HOW MANY DIMENSIONS?

5. Eysenck & Eysenck’s 2 axes of personality traits (1990)
UNSTABLE
Extraversion-introversion
Emotional stability-instability
Moody
Touchy
Anxious
Restless
Rigid
Aggressive
Sober
Excitable
Pessimistic
Changeable
Reserved
Impulsive
Unsociable
Optimistic
Quiet
Active
INTROVERTED
EXTRAVERTED
Passive
Sociable
Careful
Outgoing
Thoughtful
Talkative
Following the original study of Allport and his colleagues
Eysenck & Eysenck tried to reduce the number of dimensions of basic traits to two- three
Using factor analysis based on responses to their personality questionnaire of people from 35 countries ---
They defined the 2 dimensions as:
Extraverison (extraverted/introverted)
Emotionality (stable/unstable)
Folloing them – there have been many attempts at creating a list of the most ‘important’ traits
some theoretical, some atheoretical...
Peaceful
Responsive
Controlled
Easygoing
Reliable
Lively
Even-tempered
Carefree
Calm
Leadership
STABLE

6. Today’s BIG 5 trait dimensions (O-C-E-A-N)
Extreme points of the dimension
Conscientiousness
Organized
Careful
Disciplined
Disorganized
Careless
Impulsive
Agreeableness
Soft hearted
Trusting
Helpful
Ruthless
Suspicious
Uncooperative
Neuroticism
(emotional stability)
Calm
Secure
Self-satisfied
Anxious
Insecure
Self-pitying
Openness
Imaginative
Preference for variety
Independent
Practical
Preference for routine
Conforming
Extraversion
Sociable
Fun-loving
Affectionate
Retiring
Sober
Reserved
Today’s it is commonly believed that human personality can be better described with 5 diemnsions.
Eysenck & eysenck was right in the two dimensions, but they are not enough.
For the last two decades- the most influential trait approach contends that five traits (factors – called as THE BIG FIVE) liet at the core of personality.
Using modern factor analytic statistical techniques, researchers have identified a similar set of five factors (across cultures, different age groups and situations) that underlie personality:
taxonomy with most support: five-factor model (Big Five)
-- range on two ends of each dimension
Each also has sub-dimensions
So it does get complex.
So by determining how individuals score on each one of these 5 dimesions --- create a profile.
A fuller understanding of the persoanlity.
Duygusal Dengesizlik/Neuroticism
Dışadönüklük/Extraversion
Açıklık/Openness
Geçimlilik/Agreeableness
Sorumluluk/Conscientiousness

7. QUESTIONS Are there biological bases for personality?
Are the traits genetically determined?
Are the traits stable?
Are the traits culturally universal?
Does a person’s personality change across situations?

8. Are there biological bases for the traits?
YES
Extraverted individuals have low levels of brain arousal – hence they seek stimulation
E.g. in the frontal lobe which is engaged in inhibition
Fearless and uninhibited individuals have low levels of autonomic nervous system reactivity
Genes determine temperament and behavioral styles that define individuals’ personality
Brain- activity scans of people with different persoanlity characteristics are measured while they are doing a variety of tasks:

9. Are the traits genetically determined?
Results for the “Big Five” personality dimensions: personality differences are 40 to 50% genetically determined.
(some difference based on the specific traits)
heritability: (Bouchard & McGue, 2003)
openness: 57%
extraversion: 54%
conscientiousness: 49%
neuroticism: 48%
agreeableness: 42%

10. Are the traits stable?
Mostly YES: With age, personality traits become more stable
generally very stable through adult life
neuroticism, extraversion, openness drop slightly after college
agreeableness (30s-60s), conscientiousness (20s) rise slightly after college (McCrae et al., 1999; Vaidya et al., 2002)

11. Are the traits culturally universal?
Research on Big Five (McCrae et al. , 2005):
50 culture study, 80 collaborators
“Features of personality traits are common to all human groups.”
some variability...
e.g. individualistic cultures score higher (on average) on extraversion

12. Does a person’s personality change across situations
Does a person’s personality change across situations? The Person-Situation controversy (Mischel, 1968)
Specific behaviors change from one situation to another
Can be outgoing in some situations, yet reserved in others.
At any moment the immediate situation (powerfully) influences a person’s behaviors – Esp. when the situation makes clear demands (e.g. Classroom behavior)
People’s average tendencies across many situations tend to be consistent and predictable
Personality tests cannot predict specific behaviors in specific situations
Indeed this controversy is a criticism to the trait theory
On average --- we are the same people.

13. Contemporary psychology’s ways of assessing personality
Personality can be assessed by self-report: a personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to measure a wide range of feelings and behaviors
Assesses selected personality traits
scored objectively
Since traits are stable and they guide our behaviors --- we shouşd be able to assess them with reliable and valid tests
(on basic diemsions rather than general evaluations like in projective tests) )
Mostly rely on personality inventories – long questionnaires
(idea is similar to intelligence test)
Standardized Personality Tests: Objective Personality tests
use a set of items and have been screened for psychometric properties such as reliability and validity.
Try to capture abstract construct by a number of items

14. Sample Extraversion Items
I don't mind being the center of attention.
I feel comfortable around people.
I start conversations.
I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
I have little to say. (reversed)
I keep in the background. (reversed)
Extraverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.
Introverts lack the energy and activity levels of extraverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less dependent on the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; they simply need less stimulation than an extravert and more time alone to re-charge their batteries.

15. Sample Openness Items I am full of ideas. I have a rich vocabulary.
I have a vivid imagination.
I spend time reflecting on things.
I use difficult words.
I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed)
This dimension is useful in distinguishing imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They therefore tend to hold unconventional and individualistic beliefs, although their actions may be conforming.
People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.

16. Contemporary psychology’s ways of assessing personality
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests – translated to 100 languages including Turkish
originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use)
Since traits are stable and they guide our behaviors --- we shouşd be able to assess them with reliable and valid tests
(on basic diemsnions rather than general evaluations like in projective tests)
Mostly rely on personality inventories – long questionnaires
(idea is similar to intelligence test)
Standardized Personality Tests: Objective Personality tests
use a set of items and have been screened for psychometric properties such as reliability and validity.
Try to capture abstract construct by a number of items 16

17. The Trait Perspective: Personality is a set of traits
Definition: Trait is a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act
Traits tend to cluster around a few dimensions
Traits can be assessed by self-report inventories – e.g. MMPI
Contemporary psychologists accept the “Big 5” dimensions: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion
There is a biological basis for some traits brain arousal levels
Traits are increasingly stable over the life span.
Traits are 40-50% heritable.
People’s specific behaviors change across situations, but their average tendencies for behavioral responses remain predictable.
Trait approaches to personality provide a clear, straightforward explanation of people
It allows for comparing one person to another. 17

18. Module 35 – Contemporary Perspectives on Personality
The Social Cognitive Perspective
Midterm oncesi derste buradan baslayip sadece personality’i bitirdim, abnormala baslamadim. 18

19. Review: Perspectives on Personality
We are studying 4 perspectives on personality
Psychoanalytic, Humanistic, Trait, and Social-Cognitive
Trait perspective: People can be described by a limited set of patterns of behavior or disposition to feel and act
Eysenck & Eysenck’s 2 dimensions: Stability and extraversion
Big 5: Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to new experience, and extraversion
Questions about personality traits:
Are there biological bases for personality? Yes, neurotransmitters
Are the traits stable? Yes, especially after adolescence
Are the traits genetically determined? Yes, partially
Does a person’s personality change across situations? No, behaviors change, average tendencies for behavior remains stable

20. Perspectives on Personality
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
Trait
Social-cognitive

21. Social-Cognitive Perspective (Bandura, 2001)
Behaviors are influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context
Reciprocal Determinism: the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors
Most recent theory of personality --- bandura’s social cognitive theory:
-- emphasizes the interaction of our biologically influenced psychological traits with our situations
Like the social –cognitive theories of learning (bobo doll)--- we acquire most of our behaviors through observing others and modeling their behaviors. BUt mental processes are also important. What we think of the environment....

22. Reciprocal determinism
People choose different environments: preferences
People react to environments based on personality
Personality help choose environments to which we react
Experiences will change our reactions over time
BIOLOGICAL , PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND SOCIAL-CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCE PERSONALITY
BEHAVIOR EMERGES FROM THE INTERPLAY OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES

23. For Each Question - indicate which of the two statements you believe to be true
1. Many of the unhappy things in people's lives are partly due to bad luck
People's misfortunes result from the mistakes they make
2. One of the major reasons why we have wars is because people don't take enough interest in politics
There will always be wars, no matter how hard people try to prevent them
3. In the long run, people get the respect they deserve in this world
Unfortunately, an individual's worth often passes unrecognized no matter how hard he tries
4. The idea that teachers are unfair to students is nonsense
Most students don't realize the extent to which their grades are influenced by accidental happenings
5. Without the right breaks, one cannot be an effective leader
Capable people who fail to became leaders have not taken advantage of their opportunities
For Each Question - indicate which of the two statements you believe to be true
There are no right or wrong answers – only your own choices 23

24. 6. No matter how hard you try, some people just don't like you B
6. No matter how hard you try, some people just don't like you
People who can't get others to like them don't understand how to get along with others
7. I have often found that what is going to happen will happen
Trusting to fate has never turned out as well for me as making a decision to take a definite course of action
8. In the case of the well prepared student, there is rarely, if ever, such a thing as an unfair test
Many times exam questions tend to be so unrelated to course work that studying is really useless
9. Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it
Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.
10. The average citizen can have an influence in government decisions
This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it. 24

25. Rotter’s Internal-External Control ScaleB
11. When I make plans, I am almost certain that I can make them work
It is not always wise to plan too far ahead because many things turn out to be a matter of luck anyway
12. In my case, getting what I want has little or nothing to do with luck
Many times we might just as well decide what to do by flipping a coin
13. What happens to me is my own doing
Sometimes I feel that I don't have enough control over the direction my life is taking
SCORE: 1 point for 1A, 2B, 3B, 4B, 5A, 6A, 7A, 8B, 9B, 10B, 11B, 12B, 13B
High is external locus of control
A high score = External Locus of Control
A low score = Internal Locus of Control 25

26. The issue of personal control in influencing feelings and behaviors
Individual’s perception of their control over their environment shapes the way they act, think, and feel
External Locus of Control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate
Internal Locus of Control
the perception that one controls one’s own fate
“internals” achieve more in school, act more independently, can cope with stressors better, enjoy better health, feel less depressed and than “externals”.
Personality is determined through the interaction of the individual with the environment: reciprocal determinism
Individual’s perception of their control over their environment shapes the way they act, think, and feel
Internal vs. external locus of control
An extreme sense of lack of control is “learned helplessness”: a GENERALIZED pattern of hopelessness 26

27. Perceived control is basic to adaptive human functioning
Uncontrollable
bad events
Perceived
lack of control
Generalized
helpless behavior
An extreme situation of lack of control: Learned Helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an organism learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events 27

28. How helpless do we feel? Optimism vs. pessimism
Pessimism: a negative attributional style - explain bad events as externally determined, stable, and global and success as external
Optimism: a positive attributional style - explain bad events as internally controllable, temporary, and specific and success as internal
Both internal locus of control and optimism are related to higher achievement, better dealing with stress, less illness and faster recovery. 28

29. Critique of the social-cognitive perspective
Too much emphasis on the situation, not enough emphasis on the “person” in the “personality” 29