1. Designing an Ethical Online Study
Chapter 4
Designing an Ethical Online Study
Janet Salmons, PhD

2. Objectives
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 4, you will understand design considerations for:
Knowing the foundations for research ethics found in ethics theories and codes.
Comprehending the historical events that lead to the development of ethics codes and policies.
Understanding accepted and contested issues in Internet Research Ethics.

3. Research ethics & social responsibility
At its simplest, research ethics can be defined as the responsibility of the researcher toward others, including society broadly, other scholars, and most importantly, those whose attitudes, behaviors, and experiences we are studying.
How do we decide what research designs and practices represent responsible and ethical behavior?

4. Why are ethics theories important for researchers?
Each of us needs a moral compass that helps us determine an ethical path in life … and in research. Ethics theories help us understand diverse ways of approaching a dilemma. They provide us with language we can use to explain our choices.

5. A High-level look at Four ethical theories & research implications
Ethical Theory
Implications for Researchers
Deontology: The priority for ethical behavior is in adhering to principles and duties, based on the premise that some choices are morally wrong, no matter how good the consequences (Baggini & Fosi, 2007).  
Researchers should follow the rules where codes are set by governing bodies and/or institutions. Individuals are respected, not seen merely as a means to an end.
Consequentialism: This view holds that whether an act is morally right depends primarily on the consequences of the act, the motive behind the act, or a general rule requiring such acts (Sinnott-Armstrong, 2011).
If the results of the research are positive and beneficial, then taking a flexible approach to applying established guidelines or principles used to achieve them is ethically acceptable.

6. A High-level look at Four ethical theories & research implications
Ethical Theory
Implications for Researchers
Virtue Ethics: Ideal virtues, or moral character, are the guiding force for ethical decisions (Crisp, 2010).
The researcher is responsible for his or her own ethical decisions and the researcher should rely on ideal virtues and a personal moral compass.
Ethics of Care: Ethics of care focuses on relationships and takes the view that if we really care about human beings in terms of moral theory, we should apply more principles in our moral decisions (Oruc & Sarikaya, 2011). 
Researchers prioritize care and compassion over rules, and put participants’ preferences above their own, acknowledging that the other may construct reality in a different way from oneself.

7. Ethics codes from professional associations
Guidelines from professional associations aim to create baseline assumptions about what is expected of researchers in the society’s disciplines in order to maintain the integrity and credibility of the field as a whole. Some guidelines focus on ethics in professional behaviors, while others focus specifically on research ethics.
Look at the ethics codes for associations in your field or discipline. What do they say about research ethics? What do they say about online research or use of online data? What are your unanswered questions?

8. Phronesis: developing practical wisdom
‘Phronesis is the ability to evaluate circumstances so that one can work out what should be done in a particular situation. Phronesis relates to working out how to act suitably in the face of ambiguity without preset formulae or highly detailed plans of action. In the face of contingency, phronesis combines knowledge, judgement, understanding, and intuition in appropriate ways in order to act “aptly” in a particular circumstance’ (Macklin & Whiteford, 2012, p. 92)
How do we cultivate the practical wisdom needed to develop an ethical approach appropriate to the study … given unknown contingencies?

9. Phronesis: Bridging Ethical Theories
For researchers working in an academic environment or under the aegis of a funded project, consequentialism is not a realistic ethics theory to guide their decisions. There are typically some rules or regulations which must be followed, regardless of how beneficial the potential research outcome may be.
Deontological theories, together with virtue ethics and ethics of care, can provide some guidance to researchers. Do you agree? Why or why not?

10. Ethics and the Qualitative eResearch framework
Ethics is central to every stage of the research process. Chapter 4 presents ethics theories and codes. Chapter 5 will focus on applying these concepts.

11. References
Baggini, J. & Fosi, P. (2007) The ethics toolkit: A compendium of ethical concepts and methods. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Crisp, R. (2010) Virtue ethics and virtue epistemology. Metaphilosophy, 41(1/2), 22–40. doi: /j x
Macklin, R. & Whiteford, G. (2012) Phronesis as professional knowledge : Practical wisdom in the professions. In A. Pittman & E. A. Kinsella (eds.), Phronesis as professional knowledge : Practical wisdom in the professions. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Oruc, I. & Sarikaya, M. (2011) Normative stakeholder theory in relation to ethics of care. Social Responsibility Journal, 7(3), doi:
Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2011) Consequentialism. In E.N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.