The Age of Anxiety, ca. 1900–1940 27.

The Age of Anxiety, ca. 1900–1940 27

I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought
A. Modern Philosophy 1.Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) 2. Henri Bergson (1859–1941) and Georges Sorel (1847–1922) 3. Logical Positivism and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) 4. Existentialism 5. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought A. Modern Philosophy 1. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) – German philosopher who launched attacks on the Enlightenment philosophies of progress, reason, democracy, rationality, and religion. He claimed that the West was in decline, “God was dead,” and that only a few superior individuals could liberate themselves from the humdrum thinking of the masses. 2. Henri Bergson (1859–1941) and Georges Sorel (1847–1922) – Bergson was a French philosophy professor who argued that immediate experience and intuition were just as important as rational and scientific thinking for understanding reality. Sorel was a French socialist who claimed that Marxian socialism was an inspiring but improvable religion—socialism would shatter capitalism through a general strike of all working people committed to revolution. 3. Logical Positivism and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) – Logical positivism was the belief that what we know about human life must be based on rational facts and direct observation; theology was useless since religious claims were impossible to prove through logic. Wittgenstein was an Austrian philosopher who in his Essay on Logical Philosophy argued that philosophy should concentrate on the study of language, which expresses thoughts. 4. Existentialism – A new philosophy, often put together by atheists, who emphasized the loneliness and meaningless of human existence and the individual’s need to come to terms with this situation. 5. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) – French existentialist who argued that “existence precedes essence,” meaning that there were no God-given timeless truths outside of individual existence. Individuals are forced to create their own meaning and define themselves through their actions.

B. The Revival of Christianity 1. Soren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) 2. Karl Barth (1886–1968) 3. Gabriel Marcel (1887–1973) 4. Other Leading Christian Intellectuals I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought B. The Revival of Christianity 1. Soren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) – Danish Christian theologian and author of Sickness unto Death who argued that individuals must take a “leap of faith” and accept the existence of an unknowable but majestic God, since it was impossible for ordinary individuals to prove the existence of God. 2. Karl Barth (1886–1968) – Swiss Protestant theologian who argued that human beings were imperfect, sinful creations whose reason and will are hopelessly flawed. Religious truth is made known only through God’s grace, not through reason. Barth’s work was a reaction against liberal theologians who sought to reinterpret Christian doctrine through the framework of modern science and reason. 3. Gabriel Marcel (1887–1973) – French existential Christian who found in the Catholic church an answer to the postwar “broken world.” 4. Other Leading Christian Intellectuals – T. S. Eliot, W. H. Auden, Evelyn Waugh, Aldous Huxley, C. S. Lewis, Max Planck, and Arnold Toynbee.

C. The New Physics 1. Marie Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) 2. Max Planck (1858–1947) 3. Albert Einstein (1879–1955) 4. Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) 5. Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought C. The New Physics (challenging the belief in unchanging natural laws) 1. Marie Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) – Physicists who discovered that radium emits subatomic particles and does not have a constant atomic weight. 2. Max Planck (1858–1947) – German physicist who showed that subatomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts (“quanta”) and not in a steady stream. His discoveries called into question the old distinction between matter and energy. 3. Albert Einstein (1879–1955) – Postulated the theory of special relativity that argued that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer and that only the speed of light is constant. 4. Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) – Physicist who showed that the atom could be split. 5. Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) – German physicist who in his “uncertainty principle” argued that nature is unknowable and unpredictable.

D. Freudian Psychology 1. Freud’s Ideas A. Id B. The Superego C. The Ego 2. Freudian Therapy 3. Civilization and Its Discontents I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought D. Freudian Psychology 1. Freud’s Ideas – Human behavior was essentially irrational and governed by the unconscious. A. Id – The primitive irrational source of sexual, aggressive, pleasure-seeking instincts that was completely amoral. B. The Superego – The overly strict and irrational conscience of internalized voice of social or parental control that kept the id in check. C. The Ego – The rational self that was mostly conscious that worked to negotiate between the demands of the id and the superego. 2. Freudian Therapy – Often entailed sitting on a coach and sharing the innermost thoughts with the psychoanalyst. This was an attempt to resolve tensions between the id and the superego. 3. Civilization and Its Discontents – A book in which Freud argued that civilization was possible only when individuals renounced their irrational instincts to live peacefully in groups. This made communal life possible but left basic instincts unfulfilled—Western civilization was inescapably neurotic. Such ideas undermined the old optimism about the progressive and rational nature of the human mind and society.

E. Twentieth-Century Literature 1. Marcel Proust (1871–1922) 2. Stream of Consciousness Technique 3. James Joyce (1882–1941) 4. Oswald Spengler (1880–1936) 5. Franz Kafka (1883–1924) I. Uncertainty in Modern Thought E. Twentieth-Century Literature (used new techniques such as the limited and often confused voice of a single individual to express new realities) 1. Marcel Proust (1871–1922) – French novelist and author of Remembrance of Things Past who tried to discover the meaning of bittersweet memories of childhood and youthful love. 2. Stream of Consciousness Technique – Relied on internal monologues to explore the psyche. It was used by Virginia Woolf ( ) in her novel Jacob’s Room and by William Faulkner (1897–1962) in his novel The Sound and the Fury. 3. James Joyce (1882–1941) – Author of Ulysses, the account of a single day in the life of an ordinary man. This novel abandoned any sense of a conventional plot, broke all formal rules of grammar, and included frank descriptions of the main character’s sexual thoughts. The language was intended to mirror modern life—a gigantic riddle to be unraveled. 4. Oswald Spengler (1880–1936) – An obscure German high school teacher who published The Decline of the West, who argued that Western civilization was in its old age and would be overtaken by East Asia. 5. Franz Kafka (1883–1924) – German-Jewish author of The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926), and The Metamorphosis (1915), that portrayed helpless individuals crushed by inexplicably hostile forces.

II. Modernism in Architecture, Art, and Music
A. Architecture and Design 1. Functionalism 2. Le Corbusier (1887–1965) 3. Walter Gropius (1883–1969) and the Bauhaus 4. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) II. Modernism in Architecture, Art, and Music A. Architecture and Design 1. Functionalism – The belief in modern architecture that buildings and living spaces should be useful and “functional”—they should serve the purpose for which they were made. 2. Le Corbusier (1887–1965) – Franco-Swiss architect and champion of modernism who argued that architects should no longer use fancy ornamentation but use the clean straight lines of practical construction and efficient machinery. His buildings were usually symmetrical rectangles made up of concrete, glass, and steel. 3. Walter Gropius (1883–1969) and the Bauhaus – German architect who established an interdisciplinary school, the Bauhaus, to pioneer new trends in modern architecture. It stressed functionalism and good design. 4. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) – Bauhaus director who fled Nazi Germany and designed skyscrapers in Chicago in the modernist, international style after 1945.

B. New Artistic Movements 1. Impressionism 2. Post-Expressionism and Expressionism 3. Cubism 4. Dadaism 5. Surrealism II. Modernism in Architecture, Art, and Music B. New Artistic Movements (artists turned their backs on figurative representation and began to break down form into its constituent parts: lines, shapes, and colors). 1. Impressionism – An early modernist movement based in Paris that tried to portray sensory “impressions” in their work and capture fleeting moments of color and light in often blurry images. Famous impressionists included Claude Monet (1840–1926), Edgar Degas (1834–1917), and Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), an American who settled in Paris. 2. Post-Expressionism and Expressionism – Added a deep psychological element to impressionist motifs of color and light. Their ranks included Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) and Gustav Klimt (1862–1918), a Viennese painter sometimes labeled a Secessionist (for having broken with traditional Viennese art institutions). 3. Cubism – A type of art concentrated on a geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes. Pablo Picasso was a cubist pioneer. 4. Dadaism – An artistic movement launched during World War I that attacked all familiar standards of art and delighted in outrageous behavior. They created “anti-art,” works that were deliberately nonsensical and often shocking. Its authors also wrote radical and nonsensical manifestos to spread their ideas and challenge conventional assumptions of all kinds. 5. Surrealism – An artistic movement that was influenced by Freudian psychology and portrayed images of the unconscious such as wild dreams and uncomfortable symbols. Salvador Dali (1904–1989) was a famous surrealist.

C. Modern Music 1. Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) 2. Alban Berg (1885–1935) 3. Arnold Schönberg (1874–1951) II. Modernism in Architecture, Art, and Music C. Modern Music 1. Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971) – Russian-born composer whose ballet the Rite of Spring caused a near riot at its premiere in 1913 in Paris. 2. Alban Berg (1885–1935) – Composer of the opera, Wozzek, which blended a half-sung, half-spoken dialogue with harsh, atonal music and depicted a soldier driven by inner terrors to murder his mistress. 3. Arnold Schönberg (1874–1951) – A Viennese composer who broke with tonality and later created “twelve-tone” music, in which all twelve tones of the scale were arranged in an abstract mathematical pattern.

III. An Emerging Consumer Society
A. Mass Culture 1. A New Consumer Culture 2. Impact 3. The “New Woman” 4. Criticisms III. An Emerging Consumer Society A. Mass Culture 1. A New Consumer Culture – Goods could be produced inexpensively and in many quantities, easily transported to national markets and marketed through professional advertising. This led to commercialized consumption and mass entertainment (movies, radio, professional sporting events, newspapers, cheap books, glossy magazines, revues and nightclubs, department stores). 2. Impact – Consumption helped democratize Western society and break down social barriers between region, class, and religion. But it also helped reinforce social differences, since only the very wealthy could afford certain manufactured marketed goods. 3. The “New Woman” – The stereotype of a surprisingly independent female who could vote, hold a job, use the latest fashions, use makeup, smoke cigarettes, and use her sex appeal to charm young men. It was inspired by the fact that consumer culture was transforming the lives of many young women. 4. Criticisms – Socialist writers complained that consumer culture was undermining working-class radicalism, while conservatives complained that it destroyed the livelihood of traditional artisans and undermined proud national traditions. Religious leaders insisted that it encouraged individualism and materialism, which destroyed morals and undermined spirituality.

Have students discuss the photo and advertisement and what they show about how social expectations for women changed after World War I. 1. How are these images of women different from images of women in previous chapters? (Answers: they wear less clothing, reveal more parts of the body, the one in the café is in public alone, emphasis on sex appeal to sell products, short hair) 2. How has World War I changed the lives of women like the one in the café? (Answers: has a job, her own income, more independence, right to vote, participant in mass culture and demand for modern consumer goods.) 3. How is the advertisement directed to this “new woman?” (Answers: shows latest style, tells her what to buy, defines what is trendy, creates urgency to acquire the latest product to be in fashion.) 4. Based on these images, do you think social expectations for women have changed from previous chapters? (Answers: yes—acceptable to be alone in public, pay for one’s own meal, advertising addresses what women want. No—women have been consumers for centuries, advertising not addressing women as employees and workers)

B. The Appeal of Cinema 1. Development 2. The Golden Age of Silent Film 3. Growing Appeal 4. Propaganda III. An Emerging Consumer Society B. The Appeal of Cinema 1. Development – Cinema emerged around 1880, and spread in the 1910s, when American directors set up movie factories in New York and Los Angeles and when European nations established their own production companies. 2. The Golden Age of Silent Film – (The 1920s) When European nations and the United States established important studios. 3. Growing Appeal – By the late 1920s, ¼ adults in Britain went to the movies twice a week, while 2/5 went at least once a week. 4. Propaganda – Because of their appeal, motion pictures were used as indoctrination tools by both the Soviets and the Nazis. Sergei Eisenstein ( ) produced epic propaganda films for the Russians, and Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003) directed the masterpiece documentary, Triumph of the Will, which depicted the 1934 Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg.

C. The Arrival of Radio 1. The Spread of Radio 2. National Broadcasting Networks 3. Propaganda III. An Emerging Consumer Society C. The Arrival of Radio 1. The Spread of Radio – Radio was available in the 1880s, but the first major broadcasts in the United States and Britain took place only in 1920. 2. National Broadcasting Networks – BBC, direct control of the networks by the government in Europe, and private ownership in the United States. 3. Propaganda – Mussolini and Hitler controlled the airwaves and broadcast their speeches there; Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin used informal “fireside chats” to bolster their support.

IV. The Search for Peace and Political Stability
A. Germany and the Western Powers 1. Reparations Payments 2. French Alliances 3. Reparations and the Great Inflation B. Hope in Foreign Affairs 1. The Dawes Plan (1924) 2. Political Settlements 3. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) IV. The Search for Peace and Political Stability A. Germany and the Western Powers 1. Reparations Payments – France believed that reparations payments would tie down Germany indefinitely and that France would realize its goal of security. John Maynard Keynes ( ), author of The Economic Consequences of the Peace, argued that reparations would impoverish Germany, encourage Bolshevism, and increase economic hardship in all countries. 2. French Alliances – With Russia hostile and communist and the United States and Britain unwilling to make firm commitments, the French signed mutual defense agreements with the countries in Eastern Europe (Czechoslavakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, and Poland). 3. Reparations and the Great Inflation – Facing reparations payments of $33 billion, German wrecked its currency by allowing runaway inflation and proposed a moratorium on further payments. The French occupied the Ruhr and seized Germany’s coal mines and steel mills. Germany responded with passive resistance and hyperinflation, which wiped out the savings of many middle-class persons. The French and Germans under Gustav Stresemann (1878–1929) were soon forced to compromise. B. Hope in Foreign Affairs 1. The Dawes Plan (1924) – A plan proposed by the American banker Charles Dawes that was accepted by France, Germany ,and Britain. It reduced Germany’s yearly reparations payments and linked them to the level of German economic prosperity in exchange for private loans from the United States to Germany. Germany used these loans to pay reparations to France and Britain, who used these payments to pay back war debts they owed to the United States. 2. Political Settlements – Agreements on borders and defense were signed at Locarno, Switzerland. 3. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) – Fifteen nations agreed to “renounce war as an instrument of international policy.” It lacked any enforcement measures.

IV. The Search for Peace and Political Stability
C. Hope in Democratic Government 1. German Stabilization 2. French Stabilization 3. Social Harmony in Britain IV. The Search for Peace and Political Stability C. Hope in Democratic Government 1. German Stabilization – Liberal democracy seemed to take root in Germany, after Hitler’s beer hall putsch was crushed in 1923 and his party lost popular support and the economy stabilized. Many nationalists, monarchists, army officers, and Communists continued to oppose the regime, however. 2. French Stabilization – France succeeded in rebuilding its war-torn northern regions by running a large deficit and risking inflation. To solve these problems, the Poincare government had to slash spending, raise taxes and stabilize the franc at 1/5 of its prewar value. 3. Social Harmony in Britain – Though unemployment hovered around 12 percent through the 1920s, the state provided unemployment benefits and subsidized housing, medical aids and old-age pensions. The Labour Party replaced the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservatives, but it moved toward socialism gradually and democratically. Britain also granted Ireland (except for Ulster) full autonomy in 1922.

V. The Great Depression, 1929–1939
A. The Economic Crisis 1. Economic Weaknesses Before 1929 2. Impact of the Financial Panic 3. Crisis of Production 4. Reasons for the Depression V. The Great Depression, 1929–1939 A. The Economic Crisis 1. Economic Weaknesses Before 1929 – In the United States, net investment in factories, farms, and equipment actually fell between 1929 and 1929, even as stock prices rose. The stock market boom was built on money bought “on margin.” 2. Impact of the Financial Panic – Once the market crashed in 1929, New York bankers recalled short-term loans made to many European countries. European businesses suddenly were unable to borrow money, a situation leading to bank crashes and general financial chaos throughout Europe. 3. Crisis of Production – Between 1929 and 1933, the world output of goods fell by 38%. Each country tried to manage the crisis alone, going off the gold standard and raising protective tariffs. 4. Reasons for the Depression – Poor leadership in the international economy and poor national economic policies (governments cut their budgets when they should have raised them and run large deficits).

B. Mass Unemployment 1. Unemployment Rates 2. Social Problems V. The Great Depression, 1929–1939 B. Mass Unemployment 1. Unemployment Rates – In Britain, unemployment averaged 18% between 1930 and 1935, while in Germany and the United States, 1/3 of workers were unemployed in 1932. 2. Social Problems – Poverty, hopelessness, delayed marriages, suicide, and mental illness

A. The New Deal in the United States 1. Roosevelt’s Goals A. Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933) B. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) C. The Works Progress Administration (1933) D. National Labor Relations Act (1935) 2. Legacies B. The Scandinavian Response to the Depression 1. Scandinavian Socialism 2. The Socialist Response V. The Great Depression, 1929–1939 A. The New Deal in the United States 1. Roosevelt’s Goals – He sought to reform capitalism in order to preserve it. Though rejecting socialism, he intervened in the economy through many programs: A. Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933) – Attempted to raise prices and farm income by limiting production. B. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) – Attempted to fix prices and wages. C. The Works Progress Administration (1933) – Built public works projects such as buildings, bridges, and highways. D. National Labor Relations Act (1935) – Helped unions by declaring collective bargaining to be the law of the land. 2. Legacies – Though achieving some social reform, it failed to pull the United States out of the depression: it took the Second World War to accomplish that. B. The Scandinavian Response to the Depression 1. Scandinavian Socialism – Passed social reform legislation in Sweden and Norway; labor and capitalists were inclined to work together. 2. The Socialist Response – Sweden used large-scale deficits to finance public works and maintain production and employment. Governments also increased pensions, unemployment insurance, and subsidized housing and maternity allowance by raising taxes first on the rich and then on everyone else.

C. Recovery and Reform in Britain and France 1. Orthodox Economic Theory in Britain 2. Explaining British Improvement 3. The French Malaise 4. The Popular Front (1936) V. The Great Depression, 1929–1939 C. Recovery and Reform in Britain and France 1. Orthodox Economic Theory in Britain – Ramsey MacDonald’s Labour government and then the conservative governments followed orthodox economic thinking by balancing the budget and controlling spending. The economy actually recovered and total production was about 20% higher in 1937 than in 1929. 2. Explaining British Improvement – Britain concentrated on the national market, and some new industries (automobiles and electrical appliances) grew in response to greater demand. Low interest rates encouraged a housing boom. 3. The French Malaise – The French economy declined steadily until 1935, and the governments remained unstable (in 1933, five coalition governments formed and fell). 4. The Popular Front (1936) – An alliance of Communist, Socialists, and Radicals that formed in response to the growing strength of fascists at home and abroad. It launched a program of social reform, which included support for unions, paid vacations, and a 40-hour workweek. As political extremism grew in the wake of the Spanish Civil War, the coalition collapsed in 1937.

The Age of Anxiety, ca. 1900–1940 27.

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The Age of Anxiety, ca. 1900–1940 27.

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