1. Bentley & Ziegler, TRADITIONS AND ENCOUNTERS, 2/e
Chapter Thirty-three: Societies at Crossroads: the fate of empires in the Ottoman world, Russia, China, and Japan

2. Today’s Big Questions
What caused the Japanese to be able to reform and open the system, whereas such efforts failed in Russia, China, and the Ottoman world?
What were the consequences of (a) the inability to reform, and (b) relatively successful reform?

3. Commonalities across the empires
All came into conflict with western powers or the United States
All proved to be militarily weak
All were forced to make either land or trading concessions, after military defeat
All experienced internal weaknesses due to population pressures, declining agricultural productivity, falling government revenue, and corruption
All looked vulnerable to domestic disturbances and uprisings
All experienced vigorous reform movements

6. Military and technological decline
The Ottomans over-relied on European developments and lost the edge in innovation. Successive reverses were experienced against the Russians, the Greeks, the Serbs, the French, and the Egyptians.
China suffered from it’s historical lack of expansionary ambitions, failed to develop it’s naval power. This was exposed in the Opium Wars of

10. The effects of military defeats
Ottoman - military defeat had two consequences:
indigenous revolt against Ottoman rule (a consequence of the Ottoman ruling strategy), forcing them to accede to European demands for capitulations (Agreements exempting Europeans from Ottoman law) and extraterritoriality (the right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens).
unable to resist financial controls exercised by the Europeans.
China –
ceded control of most of its ports
legalized the opium trade
opened the doors to missionaries

11. Failed Reform Efforts
Ottoman: attempts to reform (“Tanzimat” – introduction of enlightenment ideas) was frustrated by the overthrow of the constitution in 1878, and the despotic rule of Hamid II – aristocracy & religious conservatives blocked reform efforts
China:
Taiping rebellion - democratic society, equality, industrialization, communal wealth) put down
Self-Strengthening Movement – attempt to industrialize, modernize China…Not enough
Boxer Rebellion: attempts to eliminate foreign intrusion, a failure