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Introduction to Gene Mapping Techniques Lecture 2
Background Readings: Chapter 5 & 6 ( ) of An introduction to Genetics, Griffiths et al. 2000, Seventh Edition. This class has been edited from several sources. Primarily from Terry Speed’s homepage at Stanford and the Technion course “Introduction to Genetics”. Changes made by Dan Geiger. .
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Recombination Phenomenon (Happens during Meiosis)
Male or female Recombination Haplotype תאי מין: ביצית, או זרע
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Homolog chromosomes showing Chaismata
כרומוזומים הומולוגיים המראים כיאסמתה Sister chromatids הכיאסמה היא הביטוי הציטולוגי לשחלוף. Chaisma(ta) is the cellular expression of recombination.
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Morgan’s fruit fly data
Morgan’s fruit fly data (1909): 2,839 flies Eye color A: red a: purple Wing length B: normal b: vestigial AABB x aabb AaBb x aabb AaBb Aabb aaBb aabb Expected Observed , ,195 The pair AB stick together more than expected from Mendel’s law: RF =( )/2839=0.107
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The Chi-Square test Bb bb Aa 1339 151 1490 aa 154 1195 1349 1493 1346
2839 Expected means under assumption of independence of the loci A and B. Using 2 tables, with one degree of freedom, this number is converted to a probability. If the probability is less than 0.05, the null hypothesis of independence is rejected. Use with care; the conversion to probability encodes technical assumptions. This translates to a tiny probability not appearing in the tables; so independence is strongly rejected.
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Example: ABO, AK1 on Chromosome 9
2 4 5 1 3 A A1/A1 O A2/A2 A1/A2 O O A1 A2 A O A | O A2 | A2 A2 A2 Recombinant Phase inferred Recombination fraction is 12/100 in males and 20/100 in females. One centi-morgan means one recombination every 100 meiosis. One centi-morgan corresponds to approx 1M nucleotides (with large variance) depending on location and sex.
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סימונים מוסכמים בשושלות
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צבע פלפל: אינטראקציה בין 4 גנים
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צבע פלפל: אינטראקציה בין 4 גנים
צבע פלפל: אינטראקציה בין 4 גנים Y : removal of green chlorophyll from fruit y : green chlorophyll in fruit R : Red carotenoid pigment r : yellow carotenoid pigment C1; C2 : Two genes with the same function, determine amount of carotenoids. c1; c2 : Recessive mutations, lower the amount of carotenoids. Genotype Phenotype r/r C1/C1 C2/C2 y/y green R/R C1/C1 C2/C2 Y/Y red R/R C1/C1 C2/C2 y/y brown r/r C1/C1 C2/C2 Y/Y yellow R/R C1/C1 c2/c2 Y/Y orange r/r c1/c1 c2/c2 Y/Y white
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אי התאמת רקמות: אינטראקציה בין 2 גנים
אי התאמת רקמות: אינטראקציה בין 2 גנים קיימים 2 גנים HLA-A ו- HLA-B הקובעים את הטיפוס האימינולוגי של התא והרקמה. בגןHLA-A קיימים 8 אללים שונים: A1, A2, A3, A9, A10, A11, A28, A29 בגן HLA-B קיימים 8 אללים שונים: B5, B7, B8, B12, B13, B14, B18, B27 כאשר תורמים רקמה, קבלת השתל תלויה בכך שלתורם לא יהיו אללים שאינם נמצאים בנתרם. אללים אלו יצרו אנטיגנים שבנתרם יגרמו לתגובה אימונית, יצירת נוגדנים, ודחית השתל. דוגמאות: תוצאה גנוטיפ תורם גנוטיפ נתרם דחיה A1 A1 B5 B A1 A2 B5 B5 דחיה A1 A2 B7 B A2 A3 B7 B12 קבלה A2 A2 B7 B A1 A2 B5 B7 קבלה A2 A3 B5 B A2 A3 B5 B7
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Purpose of human linkage analysis To obtain a crude chromosomal location of the gene or genes associated with a phenotype of interest, e.g. a genetic disease or an important quantitative trait. Examples: Cystic fibrosis (found), Diabetes, Alzheimer, and Blood pressure.
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Linkage Strategies I Linkage analysis on pedigrees
Traditional (from the 1980s or earlier) Linkage analysis on pedigrees Association studies: candidate genes Allele-sharing methods: Affected siblings Animal models: identifying candidate genes Cell – hybrids Newer (from the 1990s) Focus on special populations (Finland, Hutterites) Haplotype-sharing (many variants)
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Linkage analysis
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Fictitious Example for Finding Disease Genes
2 4 5 1 3 H A1/A1 D A2/A2 A1/A2 D D A1 A2 H D H | D A2 | A2 A2 A2 Recombinant Phase inferred We use a marker with codominant alleles A1/A2. We speculate a locus with alleles H (Healthy) / D (affected) If the expected number of recombinants is low (close to zero), then the speculated locus and the marker are tentatively physically closed.
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Association Studies
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Healthy/Affected versus a bi-allelic Marker (X,x)
fXH 78 fXA 72 fX 150 x fxH 44 fxA 41 fx 85 fH 122 fA 113 f 235 So healthy status seems independent of marker X.
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The Chi-Square test H A X fXH 78 fXA 72 fX 150 x fxH 44 fxA 41 fx 85
fH 122 fA 113 f 235 Expected means under assumption of independence of H/A versus X/x. Using 2 tables, the assertion of independence not is rejected in this example; the probability of 2 is much higher than 0.05.
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Allele-sharing methods
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Animal/Plant Breeding Methods
Inappropriate for humans. Not practical for large mammals. Not covered in this course, which focuses on computation related to human genetics.
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מיפוי גנים לכרומוזום בשיטות מעבדתיות דוגמא: איחוי בין תאי אדם לעכבר
וירוס מסוים, המטופל בקרני- uv למניעת פעילותו, נקשר בו זמנית ל-2 תאים שונים, וגורם לממברנות התאים, אחד מהאדם ואחד מהעכבר, להתאחות. נוצר תא המכיל 2 גרעינים, ולאחר מכן הגרעינים מתאחים ונוצר תא היברידי בו גרעין המכיל את שני הסטים של הכרומוזומים (אדם ועכבר).
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המשך: איחוי בין תאי אדם לעכבר
מסיבות שאינן ברורות, רוב כרומוזומי האדם נעלמים באופן רנדומלי, וכל תא היברידי מכיל סט שלם של כרומוזומי עכבר, ובין 1-4 כרומוזומי אדם. ניתן לעצור העלמות של כרומוזומי אדם ספציפיים במידה והם מכילים גן המייצר חלבון העמיד לתנאי התמיסה והאלל של לוקוס גן זה בעכבר אינו מייצר את החלבון הנדרש. בצורה זו מזוהה הגן עם אחד הכרומוזומים שנותרו בתא ההיברידי.
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על מצע מסוים (HAT medium) תאים נדרשים ליצר שני אנזימים כדי לגדול (TK,HGPRT). TK מיוצר כאשר לוקוס הגן המתאים הינו tk+. ו- HGPRT מיוצר כאשר לוקוס הגן המתאים הינו hgprt+. נבחר תאי עכבר הומוזיגוטים: tk- / tk ; hgprt+ / hgprt+ ונבחר תאי אדם הומוזיגוטים: tk+ / tk ; hgprt- / hgprt- כדי שהתאים ההיברידיים יגדלו מתחייב שיישאר לפחות כרומוזום אנושי אחד ובו הגן המקודד את TK. צביעת הכרומוזומים נותנת דגם פספוס המאפשר זיהוי כל כרומוזומי האדם הספציפיים שנשארו בכל תא היברידי. המשך בשקופית הבאה
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ניתן להשתמש בהיברידים אלו למפות גנים לכרומוסומים עי שימוש במגוון של מצעים. יכולת המיפוי תלויה ביכולתנו לזהות תוצר גן המאפשר גידול על מצע ספציפי (חלבון, אנזים) . למשל כאשר ידוע גן המקודד לחלבון המאפשר עמידות לתרופה, נבחר עכברים שאינם עמידים ותאים אנושיים עמידים. Hybrid Cell line A B C D Human chromosome present gene product 23 24 25 - + מסקנות: גן A: ממוקם לכרומוזום 5. גן B: ממוקם לכרומוזום 3. גן C: אינו ממוקם לכרומוזומים 1-7. גן D: ממוקם לכרומוזום 1.
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Linkage Strategies II Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs)
On the horizon (here) Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) Functional analyses: finding candidate genes Needed (starting to happen) New multilocus analysis techniques, especially Ways of dealing with large pedigrees Better phenotypes: ones closer to gene products Large collaborations
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Horses for courses Each of these strategies has its domain of applicability Each of them has a different theoretical basis and method of analysis Which is appropriate for mapping genes for a disease of interest depends on a number of matters, most importantly the disease, and the population from which the sample comes.
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The disease matters Definition (phenotype), prevalence, features such as age at onset Genetics: nature of genes (Penetrance), number of genes, nature of their contributions (additive, interacting), size of effect Other relevant variables: Sex, obesity, etc. Genotype-by-environment interactions: Exposure to sun.
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Example: Age at onset
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Example: Y-linked disease
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Example: X-linked disease
נורמלי המופיליה עיוורון צבעים המופיליה + עיוורון צבעים שני הגנים בתאחיזה לכרומוזום X, וקיימת תאחיזה חלקית ביניהם.
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The population matters
History: pattern of growth, immigration Composition: homogeneous or melting pot, or in between Mating patterns: family sizes, mate choice Frequencies of disease-related alleles, and of marker alleles Ages of disease-related alleles
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Bottleneck Effects 105 years 106 years
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Complex traits Definition vague, but usually thought of as having multiple, possibly interacting loci, with unknown penetrances; and phenocopies. Affected only methods are widely used. The jury is still out on which, if any will succeed. Few success stories so far. Important: heart disease, cancer susceptibility, diabetes, …are all “complex” traits. We focus more on simple traits where success has been demonstrated very often. About 6-8 percent of human diseases are thought o be simple Mendelian diseases.
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Design of gene mapping studies
How good are your data implying a genetic component to your trait? Can you estimate the size of the genetic component? Have you got, or will you eventually have enough of the right sort of data to have a good chance of getting a definitive result? Power studies. Simulations.
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Genotyping A person is said to be typed if its markers have been genotyped. Choice of markers: highly polymorphic preferred. Heterozygosity and polymorphism information content (PIC) value are measures commonly used. Reliability of markers important too Good quality data critical: errors can play a surprisingly large role.
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Preparing genotype data for analysis
Data cleaning is the big issue here. Need much ancillary data…how good is it?
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Analysis A very large range of methods/programs are available.
Effort to understand their theory will pay off in leading to the right choice of analysis tools. Trying everything is not recommended, but not uncommon. Many opportunities for innovation.
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Interpretation of results of analysis
An important issue here is whether you have established linkage. The standards seem to be getting increasingly stringent. What p-value or LOD should you use? Dealing with multiple testing, especially in the context of genome scans and the use of multiple models and multiple phenotypes, is one of the big issues.
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Replication of results
This has recently become a big issue with complex diseases, especially in psychiatry. Nature Genetics suggested in May 1998 that they will require replication before publishing results mapping complex traits. Simulations by Suarez et al (1994) show that sample sizes necessary for replication may be substantially greater than that needed for first detection.
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Topics not mentioned Exclusion mapping, homozygosity mapping, interference, variance component methods, twin studies, and much more. Some of these topics plus others are covered in two books: Handbook of Human Genetic Linkage by J.D. Terwilliger & J. Ott (1994) Johns Hopkins University Press. Ordered, not available at the library. Analysis of Human Genetic Linkage by J. Ott, 3rd Edition (1999), Johns Hopkins University Press.
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The Poisson Distribution
Suppose a (rare) event of interest occurs with rate (per length or time units). For example number of dead birds along a highway. Number of births in one hour. Or the number of crossovers along a chromosome. If we assume that: For an arbitrarily small unit of distance (time) the probability of observing an event is approximately equal to , and equals virtually zero for more than one event. The rate is constant over the entire region. The number of events occurring in one interval is independent of the number of events occurring in a previous disjoint interval, then, the probability for the number of events I occurring at an interval of length t is the Poisson distribution given by:
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A mapping function =Expected number of crossovers in a unit distance (1000bp). f(0) = e-t = the probability of no crossovers in t distance units. Because recombinant occur only if crossovers are present, and in that case, half gametes are recombinants and half are not. RF = 0.5(1 - e-t ) Note that RF < 0.5 This relates a genetic distance (RF) with a physical distance t.
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