1. Copyright Law David G. Post Temple Law School Feb. 2004 David
Copyright Law David G. Post Temple Law School Feb

2. Copyright Law https://www.copyright.gov/title17/
At this website all federal copyright laws are listed.

3. Copyright attaches to works of authorship
copyright consists of
“original works of authorship” that are
“fixed in any tangible medium of expression”
Nothing more is required
Registration of copyright is not required
Copyright notice is not required

4. Originality An “original” work is one that was
independently created, and
shows a “modicum of creativity”
Cannot be a copy of another's work

5. Fixed in a Tangible Medium
A work is “fixed in a tangible medium of expression” when it is embodied in a material object of some kind – the pages of a book, a canvas, magnetic tape, a computer’s hard disk, a piano roll, . . .
NOT in your mind. Must be reproducible.

6. What is this thing – “copyright” – that attaches to original works of authorship that are fixed in a tangible medium of expression?
copyright is a negative right
It does not give the owner a right to do something with or to the work;
it gives the owner a right to exclude others from doing certain things with or to the work
It establishes your ownership

7. What can the copyright owner exclude others from doing with or to the work?
The Section 106 rights: The owner of copyright can exclude others from
reproducing the work
The right to exclude others from making reproductions that are “substantially similar” to the copyrighted work
distributing the work [or things “substantially similar” to the work] to the public
creating a “derivative work” based upon the work
performing the work in public
displaying the work to the public
transmitting the work by means of digital audio transmission

8. What is the “work” that copyright protects?
Copyright protects only the expression contained in the work, not the ideas
The copyright owner therefore does not have the exclusive right to reproduce [or distribute, or perform, or display, etc.] the “ideas” in a work; only the way that he/she chose to express those ideas
and only if that expression is “original”

9. What is the “work” that copyright protects, II
Copyright never protects the “facts” revealed in a work; only the way the author has organized, or selected, or arranged those facts
and only if that organization/selection/arrangement is itself “original”
The copyright owner therefore does not have the exclusive right to reproduce [or distribute, or perform, or display, etc.] the “facts” in a work; only the [original] way that he/she chose to select, organize or arrange those facts

10. Who owns the copyright?
Initially – i.e., when a work is created and fixed in a tangible medium of expression – all of the exclusive rights vest in the “Author”
who is the “Author” of a work?
Ordinarily, the author is who you think it is
Sometimes, it can be more than one person; “joint authors,” who own the copyright jointly
If the work was created by an employee acting within the scope of his or her employment, the employer is the author [Work for Hire]

11. Who owns the copyright, II
After the initial vesting, the author can
divide up rights any way he/she wants, and can
transfer the rights, in whole or in part, to anyone else
as long as the transfer is in writing and signed by the owner of the rights in question
The owner can also license others to do things that would otherwise be violations of one of more of the exclusive rights
These do not have to be in writing

12. The Picture So Far
Copyright subsists in “original works of authorship” that are “fixed in any tangible medium of expression”
Whoever owns the copyright has the right to exclude others from doing certain things with or to the work
The owner of copyright can exclude others from
reproducing the work
distributing the work to the public
creating a “derivative work” based upon the work
performing the work in public
displaying the work to the public
transmitting the work by means of digital audio transmission
The “work” to which these exclusive rights attach does not include any “ideas” or “facts” – those are in the public domain. Only original expression is protected
Initially, all of the exclusive rights vest in the “Author”
who is the “Author”?
Ordinarily, the author is who you think it is
Sometimes, it can be more than one person; “joint authors,” who own the copyright jointly
If the work was created by an employee acting within the scope of his or her employment, the employer is the author [Work for Hire]
After the initial vesting, the author can
divide up rights any way he/she wants, and can
transfer the rights, in whole or in part, to anyone else
as long as the transfer is in writing and signed by the owner of the rights in question
The owner can also license others to do things that would otherwise be violations of one of more of the exclusive rights
These do not have to be in writing

13. Infringement
Anyone who violates any of the exclusive rights of the copyright owner without authorization is liable as an infringer of copyright

14. What happens to infringers of copyright?
Injunctive relief is available
a court order to stop doing whatever it is you are doing that constitutes infringement
Damages are available
The copyright owner’s actual damages from the infringement, OR
Fixed statutory damages
up to $20K per infringement, whether or not there were any actual damages

15. What kind of authorization can serve as a shield against liability?
Licenses
Remember: these do not have to be in writing
They can be implied from the circumstances
Fair Use
It is not infringement to make “fair use” of a copyrighted work
It is a kind of license granted to the public to do certain things to and with copyrighted works that would otherwise constitute infringement

16. When are uses “fair”? Four factors are balanced against one another
The purpose of the use
what did the defendant do, and why?
commercial uses are bad; educational uses are good
duplicative uses are bad; transformative uses are good
The nature of the work being infringed
The amount that was taken from the work
more is bad; less is good
The effect of the use on the market for, or the value of, the work
Will the defendant’s actions, if widespread, reduce the value of the copyrighted work?
Will they deprive the copyright owner of valuable or potentially valuable licensing opportunities?

17. The “Classroom Guidelines”
Copyright Office Circular No. 21: “Reproduction of Copyrighted Works by Educators and Librarians”
A single copy may be made of any of the following by or for a teacher at his or her individual request for his or her scholarly research or use in teaching or preparation to teach a class:
A. A chapter from a book;
B. An article from a periodical or newspaper;
C. A short story, short essay or short poem,
D. A chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon or
picture from a book, periodical, or newspaper;
There shall not be more than nine instances of such multiple copying for one course during one class term.

18. Classroom guidelines, II
Multiple copies (not to exceed in any event more than one copy per pupil in a course) may be made by or for the teacher giving the course for classroom use or discussion; provided that:
A. The copying meets the tests of brevity and spontaneity
Brevity: e.g., for prose works: (a) Either a complete article, story or essay of less than 2,500 words, or (b) an excerpt from any prose work of not more than 1,000 words or 10% of the work, whichever is less, but in any event a minimum of 500 words.
Spontaneity: The copying is at the instance and inspiration of the individual teacher, and the inspiration and decision to use the work and the moment of its use for maximum teaching effectiveness are so close in time that it would be unreasonable to expect a timely reply to a request for permission.
B. The copying meets the cumulative effect test
e.g., There shall not be more than nine instances of such multiple copying for one course during one class term.
and,
C. Each copy includes a notice of copyright