1. 5.3 Lexical Meaning 1. sense and reference I like dogs.
The dog over there is very lovely.
2. Major sense relations
teacher VS student
husband VS wife
good VS bad

2. 1. Sense and reference(涵义和所指）
Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
涵义是关于语言形式的内部意义，是语言形式所有特点的集合，是抽象的和非语境化的。

3. E.g.
dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.
This does not refer to any particular dog that exits in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So it is the sense of the word dog.

4. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指，指一种语言形式在现实世界中所指代的事物，主要研究语言元素和非语言经验世界之间的关系。
E.g. The dog is barking.
Here, the dog refers to a certain dog existent in the situation; and a dog known to the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.

5. Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
On the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
A very good example is the two expressions morning star and evening star. These two differ in sense but as a matter of fact, what they refer to is the same: the very same star that we see in the sky.

6. 2. Sense Relations Gradable Complementary Converse Synonymy Antonymy
Hyponymy
Polysemy
Homony
Gradable
Complementary
Converse

7. 1 Synonymy
If two or more words, like “broad” and “wide”, share all the semantic properties to a significant degree, they are said to be synonymous.
buy/purchase
thrifty/economical/stingy
autumn/fall
flat/apartment
tube/underground

8. The classification of synonyms
1. Dialectal synonyms (地域同义词)
----Synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Let’s take British English and American English for example.
British English American English
autumn fall
lift elevator
luggage baggage
flat apartment
lorry truck

9. The classification of synonyms
2. stylistic synonyms (风格同义词）
----Synonyms differing in style
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
old man, daddy, dad, father;
start, begin, commence;
kid, child, offspring;
kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease.

10. The classification of synonyms
3. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning (感情或评估同义词）
These words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
E.g. collaborator VS. accomplice
collaborator: a person working together others
accomplice: a person who helps others to do something wrong.

11. The classification of synonyms
4. Collocational synonyms (固定搭配同义词）
Some synonyms differ in their collocation.
E.g. 1) accuse accuse …of
charge charge … with
rebuke rebuke… for.
2) tomatoes rotten tomatoes
eggs addled eggs
butter rancid butter
milk sour milk

12. The classification of synonyms
5. Semantically different synonyms (语义不同同义词）
---synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.
E.g. amaze VS. astound
surprise amaze---confusion and bewilderment
astound--- difficulty in believing

13. 2 Antonymy
If two words, say “long” and “short”, are contradictory with regard to one or more important semantic properties, they are said to be antonymous. E.g.
rich VS. poor heavy VS. light deep VS. shallow
love VS. hate up VS. down come VS. go
We should not be misled into thinking that words contrast each other only on a single dimension; in fact, oppositeness can be found on different dimensions and different kinds of antonyms have been recognized.

14. 3 Gradable antonymy good ----------------------- bad
long short
Big small
Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.
Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.
Can have comparative forms.
Can be asked with how.

15. 4 Complementary antonymy
alive : dead
male : female
present : absent
innocent : guilty
odd : even
pass : fail
boy : girl
hit : miss

16. A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.

17. 4 Converse antonymy buy : sell teacher : student lend : borrow
give : receive
parent : child
husband : wife
teacher : student
above : below
before : after
host : guest
employer : employee

18. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. This type of antonymy is typically seen in reciprocal roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. It is in this sense that they are also known as relational opposites.

19. 5.3 Lexical Meaning 1. sense and reference I like dogs.
The dog over there is very lovely.
2. Major sense relations
teacher VS student
husband VS wife
good VS bad

20. 1. Sense and reference(涵义和所指）
Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
涵义是关于语言形式的内部意义，是语言形式所有特点的集合，是抽象的和非语境化的。

21. E.g.
dog: a domesticated canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.
This does not refer to any particular dog that exits in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition. So it is the sense of the word dog.

22. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
所指，指一种语言形式在现实世界中所指代的事物，主要研究语言元素和非语言经验世界之间的关系。
E.g. The dog is barking.
Here, the dog refers to a certain dog existent in the situation; and a dog known to the speaker and the hearer. This is the reference of the word “dog” in this particular situation.

23. Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
On the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.
A very good example is the two expressions morning star and evening star. These two differ in sense but as a matter of fact, what they refer to is the same: the very same star that we see in the sky.

24. 2. Sense Relations Gradable Complementary Converse Synonymy Antonymy
Hyponymy
Polysemy
Homony
Gradable
Complementary
Converse

25. 1 Synonymy
If two or more words, like “broad” and “wide”, share all the semantic properties to a significant degree, they are said to be synonymous.
buy/purchase
thrifty/economical/stingy
autumn/fall
flat/apartment
tube/underground

26. The classification of synonyms
1. Dialectal synonyms (地域同义词)
----Synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Let’s take British English and American English for example.
British English American English
autumn fall
lift elevator
luggage baggage
flat apartment
lorry truck

27. The classification of synonyms
2. stylistic synonyms (风格同义词）
----Synonyms differing in style
Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality.
old man, daddy, dad, father;
start, begin, commence;
kid, child, offspring;
kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease.

28. The classification of synonyms
3. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning (感情或评估同义词）
These words that bear the same meaning but express different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
E.g. collaborator VS. accomplice
collaborator: a person working together others
accomplice: a person who helps others to do something wrong.

29. The classification of synonyms
4. Collocational synonyms (固定搭配同义词）
Some synonyms differ in their collocation.
E.g. 1) accuse accuse …of
charge charge … with
rebuke rebuke… for.
2) tomatoes rotten tomatoes
eggs addled eggs
butter rancid butter
milk sour milk

30. The classification of synonyms
5. Semantically different synonyms (语义不同同义词）
---synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.
E.g. amaze VS. astound
surprise amaze---confusion and bewilderment
astound--- difficulty in believing

31. 2 Antonymy
If two words, say “long” and “short”, are contradictory with regard to one or more important semantic properties, they are said to be antonymous. E.g.
rich VS. poor heavy VS. light deep VS. shallow
love VS. hate up VS. down come VS. go
We should not be misled into thinking that words contrast each other only on a single dimension; in fact, oppositeness can be found on different dimensions and different kinds of antonyms have been recognized.

32. 3 Gradable antonymy good ----------------------- bad
long short
Big small
Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree.
Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.
Can have comparative forms.
Can be asked with how.

33. 4 Complementary antonymy
alive : dead
male : female
present : absent
innocent : guilty
odd : even
pass : fail
boy : girl
hit : miss

34. A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.
In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.

35. 4 Converse antonymy buy : sell teacher : student lend : borrow
give : receive
parent : child
husband : wife
teacher : student
above : below
before : after
host : guest
employer : employee

36. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. This type of antonymy is typically seen in reciprocal roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. It is in this sense that they are also known as relational opposites.

37. 5 Hyponymy (上下义关系）
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more generally, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate (上义词），and the more specific words are called its hyponyms(下义词）. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
A is included in / a kind of B.
Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower
Superordinate: the more general term
Hyponym: the more specific term
Co-hyponyms: members of the same class

38. flower
Rose tulip carnation lily morning glory…
furniture
Bed table desk dresser wardrobe settee…
Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.

39. Co-hyponyms
Two hyponyms having the same superordinate are called co-hyponyms.
Case study
flower
tulip violet rose

40. All hyponymy is transitive in the sense that there is a hierarchical relation between different terms.
Case study:
X vs. Y vs Z
If X is above Y and Y above Z, then X is above Z
livestock
ox sheep pig
ram ewe lamb

41. 6 Polysemy
While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word.
The fact is that the more commonly used a word is , the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.

42. Table
(1) a piece of furniture
(2) all the people seated at a table
(3) the food that is put on a table
(4) a thin flat piece of stone, metal, wood, etc.
(5) orderly arrangement of facts, figure, etc.
(6) part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated on
(7) a level area, a plateau

43. Historically speaking, polysemy can be understood as the growth and development of or change in the meaning of words. We assume that at first the “table” had only one meaning; very likely if referred to a thin piece of stone, or wood. This is called its primary meaning. Later on it gradually came to acquire the other meanings it now represents.

44. 7 Homonymy
Homonymy (同音同形异义关系）refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音异义词）. When two words are identical in spelling, they are called homographs( 同形异义). When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.

45. Case study Homophones: rain/reign; night/knight;
piece/peace; leak/leek.
Homographs: bow v./bow n; tear v./tear n;
lead v. /lead n.
Complete homonyms:
fast adj./fast v; scale n. scale v.

46. 8. Semantic Field 1) The definition
The organization of related words and expressions into a system which shows their relationships to one another.
E.g.
Kinship
father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt
Color:
red, green, blue, white, black, gray, orange, rose, olive, purple, lemon, etc.

47. 2) The advantages of semantic field
A. The meaning of one word in a semantic field is limited by the meaning of its neighbors. As a result, meaning is to a great extent determined by the position a word occupies in its semantic field.
E.g. He is a captain.
In merchant service: its subordinate is mate;
In navy: its subordinate is commander（中校）;
In army: its subordinate is lieutenant（中尉）. *海军/空军（上尉）
I like lemon.
A kind of color, lemon juice,
lemon tree, a stupid person

48. B. Words in the same semantic field are likely to have a number of collocations in common.
E.g. Pork, beef, mutton
The making of their collocation using the following words.
Stew, fry, roast, tasty, overdone, raw, and underdone.
The words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.