1. HINDUISM
Hindu Religion and Art -Oldest continuous religious tradition (from 2500 BC) -has a centrality of god which exposes itself through many manifestations
Brahma: creator
Vishnu: sustainer
Shiva: destroyer
-this multiplicity of manifestations gives artwork an important role in Hindu Art -Rigveda is the oldest known religious text. -art rose to prominence in the Gupta Period ( AD)
HINDUISM:
Hinduism is the oldest continuously practiced religion in the world, dating back thousands of years to ancient India. It is acknowledged to be a theistic religion meaning that there is decidedly a Deity worshipped by devotees. There is not a single way to practice Hinduism, however, so it is not possible to establish whether Hinduism is a monotheistic or polytheistic religion. This depends on the practitioner. There is no indentifiable single founder of the religion and the practice of it varies greatly amongst its practitioners making it difficult to define. It is closely related in India to other religious traditions of Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, both conceptually and historically.
The scriptures in Hinduism are diverse and complex. They are vast in size and usage. They can be chanted, recited, listened to or read. The religious texts are divided into two classes: Shruti (what is heard) and Smriti (what is remembered). In the Shruti are the oldest texts, the four Vedas (books of Knowledge). The Rigveda is the world’s oldest religious text and contains 1,028 hymns. Also in shruti are the Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) or manuals for sacrifice. And finally the Upanishads (sittings near a Teacher)—these are philosophical in nature and discuss cosmic reality. Their emphasis is on self-denial as a way to find religious truth, the path to astheticism. In the Smriti are the epic poems the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata is the longest poem in history. Also in the smriti are the Puranas, eighteen in number, concerned with myth, love and legend. These stress devotion to a specific deity—Shiva, Vishnu or Shakti, the three main devotional movements of Hinduism. Finally in the smriti there is a manual of dharma or law. It is called the Laws of Manu. Written in 200 CE, it codifies the operation of the caste system. It is crucial to the practicing Hindu.
At the core of Hindu belief is that of transmigration of the soul which leads to reincarnation. Life is a cycle of birth, death and rebirth which is goverened by karma (action and reaction). Your rebirth is determined by the nature of the previous life that you have lead. The process of rebirth is called samsara. A human can be reborn into another human or into a non-human or divine form. The goal is to achieve moksha (enlightenment) or liberation of the soul from samsara.
Most Hindus are inclined to venerate one or more deity. Shiva is acknowledged as the destroyer. Brahma is acknowledged as the creator. And Vishnu is acknowledged as the sustainer. These are the major three deities. In addition to these, there are their avatars or incarnations of the deity that have devotees. There are countless other deities as well. Hinduism has flexibility within it for worship of these deities. Primary worship spaces are devoted to the major three deities.
Since contemporary practice is so diverse, this is again a consideration of ancient practice and temple building.
R.E. van Voorst, 27.
IBID 28.
IBID. 29.
IBID 30.
IBID.

2. TEXTS Upanishads Ramayana Mahabharata
Bhagavad Gita, or the "Song of the Blessed Lord
RELIGIOUS HOLIDAYS IN HINDUISM:
Diwali: Festival of Lights. Celebrates good over evil. Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights, is the most popular of all the festivals from South Asia. It is also celebrated by Jains and Sikhs. It is a 5 day celebration. It is celebrated with fireworks and sweets.
Hanuman Jayanti: commemorates the birth of the monkey god. He is a symbol of strength and energy.
Raksha Bandhan (Rakhi): Celebration of brotherhood and love.
Krishna Janmashtami (Krishna Jayanti): Celebrates the birth of Krishna, the most popular god. “Krishna is perceived by most Hindus to be an avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu, who is regarded as the highest avatar. It is believed that all other deities are manifestations of him. Krishna is considered to be a warrior, hero, teacher and philosopher by Hindus.”
Navaratri : “Navaratri (nine nights) is one of the greatest Hindu festivals. It symbolises the triumph of good over evil. Navratri takes place at the beginning of October around harvest time and, as the name implies, this festival is celebrated for nine days. Navratri is also known as Durga Puja.”
Ganesh Chaturthi: Birthday of Lord Ganesh.
Holi: Festival of Spring. Also known as the festival of colors. It is a time when bright powders are spread around.
Mahashivratri: Festival of Shiva. Celebrated at night.
Makar Sankranti: One of the most important festivals: “celebrates the sun's journey into the northern hemisphere, a period which is considered to be highly auspicious.”

3. OVERVIEW OF TENETS
Karma.  The law that good begets good, and bad begets bad.  Every action, thought, or decision one makes has consequences good or bad � that will return to each person in the present life, or in one yet to come.
Reincarnation.  Also known as �transmigration of souls,� or �samsara.�  This is a journey on the �circle of life,� where each person experiences as series of physical births, deaths, and rebirths.  With good karma, a person can be reborn into a higher caste, or even to godhood.  Bad karma can relegate one to a lower caste, or even to life as an animal in their next life.
Nirvana.  This is the goal of the Hindu.  Nirvana is the release of the soul from the seemingly endless cycle of rebirths. 

4. The Vishnu Temple at Deogarh is one of the earliest extant Hindu Temples, dedicated to the god Vishnu. Made out of masonry, it is a uniquely simple, single-cell shrine temple, but unfortunately, the tower of the shrine is in ruinous condition. When approaching the temple, a devotee would first walk around it on the exterior. As they walk, they would encounter different reliefs that illustrate the mythology of Vishnu. The Brahmins, who are the highest caste, are the only ones are allowed to enter the inner sanctums of Hindu temples and perform religious rituals.
The most famous relief on the temple is a depiction of Vishnu reclining on his serpent, named Ananta. Due to the belief in samsara (reincarnation of life, including the world), several creation myths exist in Hinduism; this relief depicts Vishnu dreaming of the creation of the world, while his wife, Lakshmi massages his feet. Brahma, the creator of the Universe, can be seen at the top seated on a lotus, which is wrapped around Vishnu’s body. Brahma then goes on to create the world.

6. The site of Elephanta, a one-hour ferry ride from Mumbai, is a major Hindu rock-cut site. The site has three caves and was probably used by a select community of Brahmins (again, the members of the priestly caste in Hinduism). The site is probably a royal commission by Krishnaraja I of the Kalachuri dynasty because his coins were found on the island and he was a devotee of Shiva. Thus, this architectural work could demonstrate Kirshnaraja’s bhakti or devotion to Shiva. The main cave at this site, Cave I, consists of the main shrine with a Shiva linga, a form that is repeated on many relief sculptures against the cave walls. The reliefs are so prominent in this cave that they overpower the main sanctum–the most important place in a Hindu temple.
The main image of the temple is called Sadashivan the south wall. The multiple faces of Shiva underscore his multiple aspects, as outlined above (and below). Many have interpreted this image, but in this context, it seems plausible that this image represents Shiva’s ultimate manifestation, the totality of all he does. The right side has an angry expression, called aghora, with twisting hair, a moustache, a furrowed brow, and snake earrings. He represents the ferocious side of Shiva, the destructive force that fights time, death, and evil. The left profile encompasses Shiva’s feminine side, called Vamadeva, through the face of the Goddess Parvati, who represents benign beauty and femininity. The middle face is called Sadyojata, which represents Shiva’s most essential and serene form–his absolute knowledge.

8. Western India is known for its abundance of Buddhist and Hindu rock-cut sites. About two hundred years after the site of Elephanta was made, the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora was constructed. The site of Ellora is impressive, recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site, full of rock-cut caves, and Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. The Kailasanatha Temple was a huge undertaking at a size of one 196 by 98 by 98 feet, carved completely out of the negative space of a hill. This allowed for freestanding “islands” of rock, chiseled out of the ground from top to bottom. For example, one can find two free standing rock-cut elephants and a column on the floor of the courtyard. The entire temple complex was commissioned by Krishna I (reigned ) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Kailasanatha, or “Mt. Kailasa,” is the heavenly abode of Shiva in the Himalayas, where Krishna, Shiva’s avatar, brought heaven to earth. Naming this site Kailasanatha then associates his territory with Shiva’s home, the center of the Universe. (In what other examples do we see the use of divinity to legitimize a ruler?) The building of temples is, again, part of a king’s dharma; it is his duty to provide for his subjects both spiritually and materially, and to demonstrate his devotion. Because of this, a large part of most Hindu kingdoms’ economies were invested into building temples. The actual building of this temple was a tremendous effort that required tons of resources, such as laborers to remove the rock, an architect to design the temple, artists to create sculptures and paintings, members of the clergy to manage production, etc. Once finished, markets opened up outside of the temples to take advantage of the foot traffic. Providing these opportunities for commerce, the temple’s construction puts money back into the economy. (Ask your students how this is similar to contemporary major building projects, like the building of sports complexes.)
In general, a Hindu temple like Kailasanatha has four main parts: gopura (gateway), mandapa (porch or hallway for worshippers to gather), garbha griha (the inner shrine), and the shikhara (the exterior tower). All four sections are preserved at Kailasanatha, but unfortunately, only fragments of its paintings remain. The building was so spectacular that, according to legend, its architect stood in front of it in amazement asking, “Was it indeed I who built this?” This site was one of the last hurrahs for rock-cut architecture in western India, as it proved too costly to continue.
The Chandellas were rulers of a small kingdom in North India, whose capital was Khajuraho–another UNESCO world heritage site. The first temple they commissioned was the Laksmana temple, which was completed in 954 and established sovereignty of the new dynasty. The Chandellas are best known for their temples and artificial lakes, with twenty-two temples still intact occupying one square mile. The rulers built a temple for every year they were power, which would mean that there were originally eighty-five completed Hindu temples at this site–the majority erected between c ce. It is not unusual to build many structures on the same site, but the enormity of this site (a square mile) suggests a special goal–perhaps a declaration of power? A desire to create a seat of religious learning?

10. Kandarya Mahadeva (temple of Shiva). 10th-11th C.
This is Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Pradesh, India. It was built around 1000 CE in North Central India in a town that at the time was called Khajuraha or City of the Gods. In this city originally, there were alleged to be more than eighty temples built between 950 and 1050 CE. Only twenty survive. This temple is one of the remaining magnificent temples. It is dedicated to Shiva and is structured symbolically to reflect the worship of the god. It is symbolic in form. Notice that it is elevated on a base. This Medieval Hindu temple is meant to resemble a ‘world mountain’, to emulate the neighboring Himalayas. It would have been gessoed or coated in white to have the snowy quality. This outer layer is now completely gone. The highest tower in this temple soars to a height of 102 feet. It was understood that this space was to be the home on earth for the god.
The interior space consists of a series of rooms that proceeds to the most sacred of rooms the garbagriha (womb room) which houses a linga in representation of the deity Shiva to whom the temple is dedicated. The linga is the mark or sign of Shiva. It is often represented as a phallus but also as a cylindrical form. It is the creative force of Shiva. This is directly beneath the shikhara or the highest peak in the temple. It is buttressed by eighty-four subordinate towers. The worship practiced in a Hindu temple is not congregational. There were dancers or devadasis that danced before the garbagriha. The devotees bring offerings of food, flowers and gifts which they give to the Brahmin or priest to take into the most holy space of the garbagriha.
The building is covered with more than 900 relief carvings of nude figures engaged in a variety of activities. Some of the figures apply kohl to their eyes in preparation for dance to celebrate and worship. Another removes a thorn from her foot. There are also quite a few couples and groups of individual engaged in tantric sexual activity. This erotic imagery is believed to be tied to tantric practices of the time as part of religious practices. Imagery of this sort appears on numerous temples from this period and was believed to have been found on many more but was destroyed by invading Muslims who opposed the overt sexuality.
R.C. Craven. Indian Art: A Concise History (London: Thames and Hudson, 1992) 186.
IBID., 188.
IBID.
IBID., 189.
IBID., 182.
Kandarya Mahadeva (temple of Shiva). 10th-11th C.
Garbhagriha: inner room: literally ‘womb house’

11. OVER 600 figures on the exterior. 200 interior
The Kandariya Mahadeva temple’s famous exterior sculptures have an iconographic program that has yet to be thoroughly studied. Because texts for temple decoration during this time specified that images of women were a necessity, more female, mortal figures exist than gods. In fact, images of women have often been used as auspicious emblems throughout the history of Indian art. Here, they are depicted nude to the waist with large breasts, small waists, big hips, and heavy thighs, wearing lots of jewelry. In general, these types of women represent the potential for fertility in both the spiritual and material sense. The carvings also include both depictions of mithuna and maithuna couples, which represent the unity and the duality of male and female energies. Maithuna couples are explicitly shown engaged in sexual intercourse. These images are placed on the “Joining Wall” that connects the sanctum and the assembly hall–texts describe the shrine and the hall as a bridegroom and bride, with the “Joining Wall” as their place of union. Therefore, he literally “joining” couples on all three levels serve as a visual pun.
The Chandellas were patrons of the Kaulas, an esoteric sect that practiced Tantric Hinduism. When looking closely at the maithuna couples, it is apparent that these are not ordinary situations. Often, the couples have attendants and they are depicted in unusual positions. The practice of Tantra involves partaking in activities that ordinarily would be prohibited, called the panchamakara or “five mas,” as each syllable of the words begins with “ma.” They are matsya (fish), mamsa (meat), mudra (parched grain beverage), mada (wine), and maithuna (sexual intercourse). Normally, these things would be highly addictive, but the goal is that if one partakes in them, they will be able to overcome them and achieve enlightenment. This is great point in the lecture to ask your students what it means for Hinduism to accept aspects of life to the extent that it allows images of sex outside of a temple wall.
Relief Sculpture from the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple Relief sculpture, ca. 1000, depicting mithuna figures stands on the south outer wall of the antarala of the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple, Khajuraho, India.
OVER 600 figures on the exterior interior

12. Mukteshvar Temple of Shiva. Bhubaneshvar. Orissa, India. 950. Sandstone.

13. The Great Relief at Mamallapuram has also been called a “Great Sculpted Cliff,” “Descent of Ganges, ” or “Arjuna’s Penance,” but no one knows what the iconography means. The relief dates from around the early to mid seventh century ce and is carved out of two granite monoliths with a natural cleft in the center. The boulders measure forty-nine by ninety-eight feet and incorporate a scene of a mountainous abode incorporating elephants at its base. Shiva is depicted twice on the relief: once at top on the proper right and again below in a shrine. A man stands in a tree pose in front of Shiva and is depicted again in front of the shrine. Shiva is shown with his hand in varada mudra, which is the gesture of gift bestowal. The relief received its names since Shiva is prominent in both the story of Arjuna’s penance and the descent of the Ganges: In the story of the Mahabharata, the great Indian epic, Arjuna enacts a penance for Shiva’s weapon. The Mahabharata was composed between 300 bce and 300 CE and is the longest epic in world literature. It is the story about the battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas, who were cousins. Arjuna is one of the five Pandava brothers and needs Shiva’s weapon in order to defeat the Kauravas.
Bhagiratha performs austerities to persuade Shiva to bear the force of the Gange’s descent to earth. If the Ganges fell from the heavens to the earth without a buffer, it would have destroyed the world. Bhagiratha wanted the Ganges on earth in order to purify the remains of his ancestors.
The relief could possibly depict both stories, but most accept the interpretation is that it depicts the descent of the Ganges. The site of Mamallapuram is far from the Ganges river and so, by creating this relief, the Pallava rulers brought the Ganges to their territory. Indeed, the snake deities (called naga) swimming along the natural cleft also emphasize a water theme in this relief. To add to this interpretation, an unfinished carving of the same subject can be found nearby. It was probably abandoned because of the quality of the granite.

15. The production of portable metal images of deities was an important practice during the Chola dynasty (mid ninth-thirteenth centuries ce), they also were located in Tamil Nadu. They used a copper alloy of copper with a small amount of lead, tin, gold, and silver–the combination of which they believed had magical properties. The objects were bathed, clothed, decorated with flowers, and kept in separate shrines in temples. The Rajarajeshvara temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in the eleventh century possessed sixty-six metal sculptures according to inscriptions. The metal images were used during festival processions where they would be attached to carts (called rathas) and taken out of the temple grounds. The idea is that if a devotee cannot go to the god, the god will come to the devotee. This allows for darshan, seeing the Divine and the Divine seeing the devotee.
The metal images were constructed using the cire perdu, or “lost wax” technique. Initially, the image was carved out of wax, then the wax was encased in clay, and the clay fired. While being fired, the wax melted and ran out of passageways left from wax stems, and this left a clay mold. Molten metal was then poured into the mold. Once cool, the mold was broken and the image remained with all of its detail.
The Shiva Nataraja was the supreme Chola image, with dozens in existence, and it is an image that has religious and political connotations. The objects show Shiva dancing the destruction of our era of time in the Universe. Because Shiva is the god of contradictions, the Universe is also manifesting itself at the same time. Shiva could perhaps be a political emblem of the Cholas, signifying their power to create or destroy their subjects. A good essay about the Nataraja can be found at Smarthistory.org.

17. Shri Swaminarayan Mandir - Houston

18. BUDDHISM Siddharta Gotama Enlightened one: Shakyamuni
Quest for Enlightenment (Nirvana)
2 paths: ascetic growth through meditation OR prayer and faith
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS (Dharma, Law)
Three Jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, Law, Community of Monks
Siddharta Gotama
Enlightened one: Shakyamuni
BUDDHISM:
Like Hinduism, Buddhism originated in India. Buddhism dates back to the historic and first Buddha, Siddharta Gotama who lived from BCE. He was raised as a prince in the warrior caste and became the first enlightened one, known as Shakyamuni or the Enlightened One. The practice of Buddhism, like Hinduism is a quest for Enlightenment or freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth. The belief is that one can achieve one’s own Buddha status through mental and moral purification. Based on the teachings of the historic Buddha, Buddhists belief in the wisdom of Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path to liberation or nirvana. The historic Buddha established a community of monks for teaching and studying the path. He himself spent the last fifty years of his life teaching and converting, peasants and princes alike.
FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS:
Life is suffering
The reason for suffering is desire
Suffering must be caused to cease by overcoming desire
Suffering will cease if one finds the path to deliverance which is the Eightfold Path
EIGHTFOLD PATH:
Right knowledge or Understanding
Right purpose or resolve
Right speech
Right conduct or action
Right occupation or a livelihood conducive to salvation, preferably the monastic life
Right effort
Right awareness or self-mastery
Right meditation
Craven, 32.

19.  Cambodia 96.9%
 Thailand 93.2%
 Burma 80.1%
 Bhutan 74.7%
 Sri Lanka 69.3%
 Laos 66%
 Mongolia 55.1%
 Japan 36.2% or 67%
 Singapore 33.9%
 South Korea 22.9%
 Taiwan 21.1% or 35%
 China 18.2%
 Malaysia 17.7%
 Vietnam 16.4%

20. CORE TENETS samsara: the cycle of birth, death, disease and decay.
karma: the universal law of cause and effect.
maya: the illusionary nature of the phenomenal world, including skepticism of the physical world and a desire to find the truth beyond it.
mokśa: liberation, release from samsara.
nirvana: the possibility of release from samsara and release from samsara (suffering) the cycle of birth, death, life, pain, and misery.

21. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS: Life is suffering
The reason for suffering is desire
Suffering must be caused to cease by overcoming desire
Suffering will cease if one finds the path to deliverance which is the Eightfold Path

22. EIGHTFOLD PATH: Right knowledge or Understanding
Right purpose or resolve
Right speech
Right conduct or action
Right occupation or a livelihood conducive to salvation, preferably the monastic life
Right effort
Right awareness or self-mastery
Right meditation

24. GREAT STUPA, SANCHI Madhya Pradesh, India c. 150-50 BCE
Built by King Ashoka; enlarged; elaborate gateways added
Buddhist shrine
Dome built from rubble/dirt, faced with dressed stone, covered with shining white plaster; replication of dome of heaven
Mast at very top bears 3 stone disks/"umbrellas"
Umbrellas: Buddha, Buddha's Law, Monastic Orders
Mast itself is an axis mundi (connects Cosmic Waters below earth with celestial realm above it to anchor everything in proper place)
According to Buddhist text: when Buddha died was cremated and ashes were divided and enshrined in eight stupas (burial mounds)
Form predates Buddhism and is cosmological model
think of materials. think of concept of permanent religious community. think of coming up with a form for a religious space. what are the elements needed for defining?
DOME=ANDA (egg)
VEDIKA=RAILING
AXIS PILLAR
TORANA
CHATTRAS (umbrellas : three jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Law and community of monks)
SCHEMATIC AND OVERVIEW OF ENTIRE PARK>
GREAT STUPA, SANCHI

25. Why a stupa? One of the early sutras (stories, threads) records that the Buddha gave directions to honor his remains (the Maha-parinibbāna sutra). They were to be buried in a stupa at the crossing of the four great roads (the four directions of space). The stupa form was already a way in which the ashes of an honored teacher or individual were buried. Prior to his death (parinirvana), the Buddha directed that stupas should be erected in many places other than those associated with historic moments of his life so that “the hearts of many shall be made calm and glad.”
The Great Stupa at Sanchi (the Māhāstūpa), for example, is the oldest stone structure in India and one of the primary destinations of Buddhist pilgrimage. It was commissioned by the Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE. In the first century BCE, four intricately carved gateways and a balustrade that encircled the entire stupa were added. King Ashoka’s visit to the stupa is commemorated on the East Gate. Although Ashoka did lend his station to the creation of the Great Stupa at Sanchi, a thousand lay individuals also contributed.
Like other ancient structures associated with religion or government, the Great Stupa is located on a hill, high above the laity, built on an important trade route. The stupa is a solid object and so, the practitioner does not enter the stupa but circumambulates it as a meditational practice. The stupa is used as a support for meditation and as a symbolic reminder of the awakened, enlightened, state of the mind. The practitioner can walk around the stupa or move around it through a series of prostrations.
Entrance to the circular path is gained through four gates, each representational of the four great life events of the Buddha: East (Buddha’s birth), South (Enlightenment), West (First Sermon), and North (Nirvana). The gates are turned at right angles to the axis to guide the practioner in the manner of the arms of a svastika, a directional symbol that, in Sanskrit, means “to be good” (“su” means good or auspicious and “asti” means to be).
This movement suggests the endless cycle of samsara and the movement toward the center, which leads the practitioner to the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and into the center of the unmoving hub of the wheel: Enlightenment (the center of the stupa where the ashes are buried—Buddha—the source of the knowledge). The gateway signals the movement from the secular space outside of the stupa into the spiritual space inside the balustrade. The south gate is believed to be the oldest since it has an Ashokan pillar and is the primary point of entrance. The vertical posts of the gates are covered with various versions of the Ashokan pillars, underscoring Ashoka’s presence here in Sanchi, the message of Buddhism that he wished to spread, and his goal of achieving positive merit.
All of the surfaces of the gates are covered with low reliefs. The horizontal lintels are designed to resemble scrolls that have been unrolled in order to read the stories of the Buddha’s past lives. The reliefs also provided religious instruction in an age of limited literacy. However, the Buddha is not depicted in human form. The Buddha was depicted aniconically through a variety of symbols until roughly the last century BCE, about five-hundred years after his death. References to the Buddha include a cakra, his footprints, an empty throne, the Bodhi Tree, or a stupa. The gates also contain detailed forest scenes and towns, which offer a wealth of information about contemporary life.
Buddhism, the first Indian religion to acquire large communal spaces, inspired three types of architecture: the stupa, the Buddhist monastery (vihara), and a sepulchral monument (the caitya), a stupa that holds no relics. Between the first century BCE and the first century CE, major architectural construction in the creation of numerous stupas, viharas and caityas was undertaken, sponsored by donations raised from the entire community (the samgha).
Why a monastic system? In the early years of Buddhism, following the practices of contemporary religions, monks dedicated themselves to an esthetic life wandering the country with no permanent living quarters. They were fed, clothed, and housed by people wishing to gain merit. Eventually monastic complexes were created for the monks close enough to a town in order to receive alms, but far enough away so as not to disturb meditation. Many were established along trade routes, enabling the monks to receive a constant flow of goods and for traders and travelers to received blessing in return. The monastery quickly became an important aspect of the practice with a three-fold purpose: as a residence for monks, a center for religious work (on behalf of the laity), and a center for Buddhist learning.
An example of this practice is the monastic center at Vaishali. One can see the remains of one of several stupas, an Ashokan pillar, the monks’ cells, and administrative centers. Soon these types of monasteries were replaced by rock-cut accommodations for more durability. 

26. W 3.14 Yakshi from east Torana.
W 3.13 North Torana.

27. W4.6 Caves at Ajanta. Maharashtra India. 450-500 CE
The rock-cut caves were established in the third century BCE in the western Deccan. The earliest include the Bhaja Caves, the Karle Caves, and the Ajanta Caves. At Bhaja, the site of twenty-two caves, there are no representations of the Buddha since Bhaja was active during the earliest phase of Buddhism (Hinayana) when no images of the Buddha were created. It is the earliest example of this type of rock-cut cave and closely resembles the wooden structures that preceded it. The main chaitya hall at Bhaja contains a solid stone stupa surrounded in the nave flanked by two side aisles. The objects found in the caves suggest a profitable relationship existed between the monks and the wealthy traders. The Bhaja caves were located on a major trade route from the Arabian Sea eastward toward the Deccan region, linking north and south India. In the interior of a chaitya hall at Karle, space for circumambulation of the stupa has been created.
Eventually, the rock-cut monasteries became quite complex. They consisted of several stories with inner courtyards and verandas. During the second phase of Buddhism, Mahayana, where images of the Buddha and other deities were introduced, some facades had relief images of the Buddha and other the deities. This is noted at Ajanta where, in the chaitya hall, an image of the Buddha has been added to the stupa. Reliefs carved into the side aisles of the chaitya hall depict scenes from the Buddha’s life.
W4.6 Caves at Ajanta. Maharashtra India CE

28. W4.1 Chaitya Hall, Karli. Maharashtra, India. CE 50-70.
During the 6th Century Buddhism began its decline in India as the dynastically supported Hinduism rose in popularity. This is a rock-cut chaitya hall from a monastic complex in Ajanta. Notice that there is a small stupa in the front. This is the focus of the personal worship. The devotee would still circumambulate this structure. Now, notice that there is an iconic or real representation of the Buddha on the stupa. This is one of many buildings in this cave complex carved from living-rock. There are meeting rooms, living quarters and other worship spaces.
Fisher, 55.

29. SECTION OF THE CHAITYA HALL AT KARLA
1st century BCE-1st century CE
123 ft long, 46 ft high
Largest, most developed chaitya hall
Arched windows (imitating facade of multistoried palace)
Chaitya window/sun window provides light
Panels of mithuna couples flank entrances (male and female figures that evoke harmony, fertility)
Barrel vault ceiling
Wide central aisle, two narrow side aisles lead to stupa in apse
Stupa placed at end with ambulatory that allows for ritual circumambulation
Basilican form with long nave defined by colonnade
Bell-shaped capitals on columns
SECTION OF THE CHAITYA HALL AT KARLA

30. Images of the Buddha The common mudras: Abhayamudra: fear not
religious leader and thus in religious garb,
alalways frontal, and
ways on a throne with usually lions in support beneath.
The common mudras:
Abhayamudra: fear not
Varadamudra: gift bestowing gesture
Bhumisparsamudra: the earth touching gesture
Dharmacakramudra: the First Sermon
Dhyanimudra: meditation or balance
Namaskaramudra: greeting, prayer, or adoration (hands folded at the chest)
There are three phases of Buddhism: Hinayana, Mahayana, and Vajrayana (the diamond or indestructible path also known as tantrayana, the tantric vehicle). All three developed in India, but Vajrayana was, and still is primarily a Tibetan Buddhist practice and is usually discussed later in Survey II—Art and Architecture of India after In each phase, changes to the Buddhist catechism were made and the images of the faith were adapted accordingly. However, each phase does not necessary supplant the others. Hinayana (in the form of Theraveda (“doctrine of the elders) since the term Hinayana is no longer used) is still practiced in portions of southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos and Burma in particular. Mahayana, or versions of it, is still practiced in China, Viet Nam, and Japan. The historical stages go by different names as the Buddhist practice blended with the indigenous one of each country.
Hinayana (shravakayana)
Generally, Hinayana is based on the original teachings of the Buddha. Release from suffering can only be achieved through personal effort and learning, and the goal is individual salvation. The Buddha is regarded as a historical person, an earthly man, and teacher and not as a transcendent being. There is a clear monastic tradition associated with Hinayana (as noted in the numerous rock-cut monasteries that were created during this period at Bhaja and Karle, for example). Understanding the Buddha’s journey and the knowledge is primary; worship of deities is secondary. The dharma is revered; the Buddha himself is not. The simple concept is release from samsara.
During the historical period of Hinayana, no images of the Buddha were made. He was often depicted by his absence (an empty throne, the empty space under the Bodhi Tree). He is also depicted by various symbols (the Bodhi Tree, feet, a cakra, etc.).
Mahayana (the greater vehicle)
Mahayana is rooted in the teachings of the historical Buddha, but seeks salvation for all beings. This attitude is embodied in the idea of the bodhisattva whose outstanding quality is compassion. The Mahayana places less emphasis on the monastery because through direct worship and assistance from the bodhisattva an individual can attain release. A bodhisattva is an enlightened being who has achieved Buddhahood (moksha: release from samsara), but chooses to remain in the temporal world to assist others.
Vajrayana (the diamond or indestructible path)
Vajrayana, the form practiced in Tibet, promotes that the means to Enlightenment is available to all and the way is expedited through elaborate rituals.

31. Seated Buddha from Gandhara

32. Hand gestures extremely important: (mudra or gesture)
This is one of meditation( dhyana)
Buddha and Attendants. Kushan period, c. late 1st – early 2nd century CE. Red sandstone. height 27 1⁄4" (69.2 cm). From Katra Keshavdev, Mathura, Madhya Pradesh. India. Government Museum, Mathura. [Fig ]

33. The Gupta Period and the Standing Buddha
Gupta power: CE
Buddhism reached its greatest influence in India
Two schools: Mathura & Sarnath
Standing Buddha embodies Sarnath style
Mildly relaxed pose
Plain robe (unlike Kushan images); distinctive of Sarnath style
Focuses attention on perfection of body
Body: graceful, slight
Downcast eyes: otherworldly introspection; gentle, open posture relates to humans
NOT represented as superhuman
Fully enlightened AND fully human
474 CE
Sandstone; 6'4"

35. Imperial Patronage
Worship and power struggles, enlightenment and suicide—the 2300 caves and niches filled with Buddhist art at Longmen in China has witnessed it all. The steep limestone cliffs extend for almost a mile and contain approximately 110,000 Buddhist stone statues, 60 stupas (hemispherical structures containing Buddhist relics) and 2,800 inscriptions carved on steles (vertical stone markers).
Buddhism, born in India, was transmitted to China intermittently and haphazardly. Starting as early as the 1st century C.E., Buddhism brought to China new images, texts, ideas about life and death, and new opportunities to assert authority. The Longmen cave-temple complex, located on both sides of the Yi River (south of the ancient capital of Luoyang), is an excellent site for understanding how rulers wielded this foreign religion to affirm assimilation and superiority. 
Seated Buddha. Northern Wei dynasty, c. 460 CE. Stone. height 45' (13.7 m). Cave 20, Yungang, Datong, Shanxi, China. Wolfgang Kaehler. Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS. [Fig ]

36. Most of the carvings at the Longmen site date between the end of the 5th century and the middle of the 8th century—the periods of the Northern Wei (486­–534 C.E.) through early Tang dynasties (618–907 C.E.). The Northern Wei was the most enduring and powerful of the northern Chinese dynasties that ruled before the reunification of China under the Sui and Tang dynasties.
The Wei dynasty was founded by Tuoba tribesmen (nomads from the frontiers of northern China) who were considered to be barbaric foreigners by the Han Chinese. Northern Wei Emperor Xiao Wen decided to move the capital south to Luoyang in 494 C.E., a region considered the cradle of Chinese civilization. Many of the Tuoba elite opposed the move and disapproved of Xiao Wen’s eager adoption of Chinese culture. Even his own son disapproved and was forced to end his own life. At first, Emperor Xiao Wen and rich citizens focused on building the city’s administrative and court quarters—only later did they shift their energies and wealth into the construction of monasteries and temples. With all the efforts expended on the city, the court barely managed to complete one cave temple at Longmen—the Central Binyang Cave. 
Central Binyang Cave
The Central Binyang Cave was one of three caves started in 508 C.E. It was commissioned by Emperor Xuan Wu in memory of his father. The other two caves, known as Northern and Southern Binyang, were never completed. 
Imagine being surrounded by a myriad of carvings painted in brilliant blue, red, ochre and gold (most of the paint is now gone). Across from the entry is the most significant devotional grouping—a pentad (five figures—see image above). The central Buddha, seated on a lion throne, is generally identified as Shakyamuni (the historical Buddha), although some scholars identify him as Maitreya (the Buddha of the future) based on the "giving" mudra—a hand gesture associated with Maitreya. He is assisted by two bodhisattvas and two disciples—Ananda and Kasyapa (bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who have put off entering paradise in order to help others attain enlightenment).  
The Buddha's monastic robe is rendered to appear as though tucked under him (image above). Ripples of folds cascade over the front of his throne. These linear and abstract motifs are typical of the mature Northern Wei style (as also seen in this gilt bronze statue of Buddhas Shakyamuni and Prabhutaratna, from 518 C.E.). The flattened, elongated bodies of the Longmen bodhisattvas (image left) are hidden under elaborately pleated and flaring skirts. The bodhisattvas wear draping scarves, jewelry and crowns with floral designs. Their gentle, smiling faces are rectangular and elongated. 
Low relief carving covers the lateral walls, ceiling, and floor. Finely chiseled haloes back the images. The halo of the main Buddha extends up to merge with a lotus carving in the middle of the ceiling, where celestial deities appear to flutter down from the heavens with their scarves trailing (left). In contrast to the Northern Wei style seen on the pentad, the sinuous and dynamic surface decoration displays Chinese style. The Northern Wei craftsmen were able to marry two different aesthetics in one cave temple. 
Two relief carvings of imperial processions once flanked the doorway of the cave entrance. The emperor’s procession is at the Metropolitan Museum (above), while the empress’s procession is at the Nelson-Atkins Museum (below). These reliefs most likely commemorate historic events. According to records, the Empress Dowager visited the caves in 517 C.E., while the Emperor was present for consecration of the Central Binyang in 523 C.E. These reliefs are the most tangible evidence that the Northern Wei craftsmen masterfully adopted the Chinese aesthetic. The style of the reliefs may be inspired by secular painting, since the figures all appear very gracious and solemn. They are clad in Chinese court robes and look genuinely Chinese—mission accomplished for the Northern Wei!
Pentad, Central Binyang Cave, 508–523 C.E., Longmen Caves, Luoyang, China, photo: Miguel Discart (CC BY-SA 2.0)

37. Monastery of Horyuji. Nara, Japan. Late 7th C.
Buddhism spread throughout Asia through trade routes on the silk-road. There is therefore great diversity in the practice of Buddhism and in its scriptures. The original scriptural texts were gathered after Gotama’s death and are based on oral transmissions of his teachings. This conversion of an oral to a written tradition continued as a primary mode of scripture preservation for early Buddhism. As it moved East to China and Japan, scriptures from these traditions were added.
Van Voorst, 69.
IBID., 74.
Monastery of Horyuji. Nara, Japan. Late 7th C.

38. Title Japan: Pagoda at Horyuji Temple, Nara, 1895.
Making the shift to Japanese Buddhism may seem completely incongruous from that of ancient India. In fact, Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 5th Century CE and was a monumental cultural shift. With the Buddhist priests came written language and a true connection to the rest of Asia. The first aristocratic patron of Buddhism was Shotoku Taishi ( ), who, much like Ashoka in India, shepherded the new religion into his culture. The most magnificent site remaining from this period is the Nara complex which boasts the oldest wooden building in the world, the Todai-ji Hall or Great Buddha Hall. The Horyuji served as a seminary. This site is extremely important because it is both monastery and worship space, much like Sanchi and Ajanta. There are small deer roaming the grounds of this complex, in honor of the site of the historic Buddha’s first sermon at Deer Park. Stylistically it is a blend of Chinese and Korean architecture. One worships differently at this temple than at an Indian temple. One will come and make offering to the Buddha in the form of incense.
IBID., 139.
IBID.
Title Japan: Pagoda at Horyuji Temple, Nara, 1895.

39. When completed in the 740s, Todai-ji (or “Great Eastern Temple”) was the largest building project ever on Japanese soil. Its creation reflects the complex intermingling of Buddhism and politics in early Japan. When it was rebuilt in the 12th century, it ushered in a new era of Shoguns and helped to found Japan’s most celebrated school of sculpture. It was built to impress. Twice. Buddhism, Emperor Shomu and the creation of Todai-ji
The roots of Todai-ji are found in the arrival of Buddhism in Japan in the 6th century. Buddhism made its way from India along the Silk Route through Central Asia, China and Korea. Mahayana Buddhism was officially introduced to the Japanese Imperial court around 552 by an emissary from a Korean king who offered the Japanese Emperor Kimmei a gilded bronze statue of the Buddha, a copy of the Buddhist sutras (sacred writings) and a letter stating: “This doctrine can create religious merit and retribution without measure and bounds and so lead on to a full appreciation of the highest wisdom.”
Buddhism quickly became associated with the Imperial court whose members became the patrons of early Buddhist art and architecture. This connection between sacred and secular power would define Japan’s ruling elite for centuries to come. These early Buddhist projects also reveal the receptivity of Japan to foreign ideas and goods—as Buddhist monks and craftspeople came to Japan.
Buddhism’s influence grew in the Nara era ( ) during the reign of Emperor Shomu and his consort, Empress Komyo who fused Buddhist doctrine and political policy—promoting Buddhism as the protector of the state. In 741, reportedly following the Empress’ wishes, Shomu ordered temples, monasteries and convents to be built throughout Japan’s 66 provinces. This national system of monasteries, known as the Kokubun-ji, would be under the jurisdiction of the new imperial Todai-ji (“Great Eastern Temple”) to be built in the capital of Nara.
Todai-ji included the usual components of a Buddhist complex. At its symbolic heart was the massive hondō (main hall), also called the Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall), which when completed in 752, measured 50 meters by 86 meters and was supported by 84 massive cypress pillars. It held a huge bronze Buddha figure (the Daibutsu) created between 743 to 752. Subsequently, two nine-story pagodas, a lecture hall and quarters for the monks were added to the complex.
The statue was inspired by similar statues of the Buddha in China and was commissioned by Emperor Shomu in 743. This colossal Buddha required all the available copper in Japan and workers used an estimated 163,000 cubic feet of charcoal to produce the metal alloy and form the bronze figure. It was completed in 749, though the snail-curl hair (one of the 32 signs of the Buddha’s divinity) took an additional two years.
Daibutsuden (Great Buddha Hall), Todaiji, Nara, Japan, 743, rebuilt. c (photo: author, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

41. The idea of path is an important concept in Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the most remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur.The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact, the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation, Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis mundi (cosmic axis).  Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of consciousness.The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha stone reliefs on the walls and opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late 19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability. Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol of the enlightened mind.The experience of meaning
While the sheer size and scope of a mandala structure such as this makes the site worthy of admiration, it is important to understand how the experience of Borobudur relates to the philosophic and spiritual underpinnings of the Buddhist religion it reifies and commemorates. Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago, Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as the paradoxical nature of human existence. The most essential tenet the religion promulgates is the impermanent, transient nature of existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma (the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed, immutable “self” is a delusion.
Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.
The texts illustrated on the walls refer to pathways as well. For instance, the Gandavyuha Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries. The last chapter of a larger text called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a youth who commences a journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to enlightenment. The concept of “path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an enlightened being (bodhisattva) named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra illustrate the concepts under discussion:
“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in the dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.
I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of Nirvana.
Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual obstructions. And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.
Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates the path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.
All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable, causing all worlds to be vessels of truth...”
The full text is available here. 
From darkness into light
The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu), represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base, through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness (arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72 stupas.
However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy. Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical, the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.
Essay by Robert E. Gordon
Borobudur. Java. C. 800.

42. Corridor at Borobudur. First Gallery

43. Borobudur.

44. 462 Angkor Wat CE

45. One Pillar Pagoda
Tiếng Việt: Chùa Một Cột
Hanoi, Vietnam

46. Buddhist Temples in Houston

47. Chung Mei Buddhist Temple
Chung Mei Buddhist Temple . International Buddhist Progress Society of Houston.
12550 Jebbia Lane, Stafford, TX 77477, USA.

48. Vietnamese Buddhist Temple Houston. Collapsed. 2014