1. Introduction to Citations and References
Peter J. Marcotullio

2. Outline What is a reference and what is a citation?
Different ways to use references
How to format citations and references

3. What are references and citations?

4. What is a reference?
Reference refers to a relation between objects in which one object designates, or acts as a means by which to connect to or link to, another object.
In academia, we use references to refer to research, data, or other types of documents that link aspects of our arguments to those of others
The “best” references are either published journal articles or peer-reviewed books

5. What is a citation?
A citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression (e.g. “(Smith, 1990)”) embedded in the body of intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the document for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.

6. Different ways to use references

7. Different ways to use references
There are, at least, 5 ways to use references in academic arguments
As a primary focus of analysis
To establish a problem or question worth addressing (i.e., to establish motive)
To supply context, background, or information (i.e. to orient the reader)
To provide key terms or concepts
To grapple with another opinion or interpretation
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

8. Different ways to use references
As a primary focus of analysis. The writer sets out to interpret, assess, illuminate, and/or complicate a source or set of sources. This use of a source is sometimes called (by humanists) “close textual analysis” or “close reading.” A close reading of a symbolic representation typically results in an interpretation, while one of an argumentative text typically results in either an interpretation or a critique.
From an American Studies paper on the Robert Gould Shaw memorial commemorating a white Civil War commander and his black troops: The murkiness of the relationship between whites and blacks is clearly reflected in the structure of the monument. Shaw is certainly the prominent figure—he and his horse are almost detached from the bronze background—while the black soldiers are in much shallower relief
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

9. Different ways to use references
To establish a problem or question worth addressing (i.e., to establish motive). The writer presents a problem, question, or dilemma, usually in the introduction, that the sources highlight in some way, either because they disagree with one another, the writer disagrees with them, they illuminate a heretofore murky matter, the information they present is conflicting, and so on.
From a history of science paper on John Huston’s film Let There By Light, a World War II documentary about soldiers treated for battle fatigue: Many historians and psychiatrists have observed psychiatry’s remarkable changes during the war, but often they present its emergence as a seamless transition in which psychiatry arrives as the “Cinderella” of the evening in the 1950s (Menninger 1991). Alternatively, histories which examine the more complicated expansion of psychiatry do so only from the inside—by looking at the internal changes of the discipline (Grob 1991; Hale 1995). An examination of Let There Be Light allows us to see the popularization of American psychiatry in the middle of this century more accurately, as an outgrowth of its dynamic relationship to the government and role in the war effort.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

10. Different ways to use references
To supply context, background, or information (i.e. to orient the reader). The writer uses sources to explain what readers need to understand, usually about a time or culture, to follow the essay. In other words, the sources help the writer build a context for a discussion.
From an economics paper on the post-Cold War viability of NATO: Created in 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a military alliance composed initially of 21 nations, including the United States, Great Britain, France, and Belgium. Officially, NATO “embodies the transatlantic partnership between European members of NATO and the United States and Canada” and was “designed to bring about peace and stability throughout Europe” (NATO).... Directly after the fall of the Soviet Union, however, NATO began an eastward expansion to include former Soviet satellite countries. This move, we may infer, was designed to ensure the Organization’s relevance in the post-Cold War world.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

11. Different ways to use references
To provide key terms or concepts. The writer borrows a term or concept (perhaps qualifying, refining, or adding to it) and uses it to elucidate the topic at hand.
From a literature paper on race and class in Toni Morrison’s novel Song of Solomon: In his essay “On Being Black and Middle Class,” Shelby Steele describes the conflict between the two aspects of a middle-class black man’s identity as a “double bind” in which his race and class are “a threat to one another” (42). Macon Dead and his son, Milkman, both economically prosperous black men, find themselves caught in the double bind that Steele describes. But instead of strongly agreeing with Steele’s assertion of the importance of individual ownership and middle class values (Steele 47), Morrison presents a more ambiguous view: ascribing to middle class values under certain conditions, she also suggests the importance of abandoning some of those values.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

12. Different ways to use references
To grapple with another opinion or interpretation. The writer presents a commentator’s opinion or interpretation to dismiss it (when the view differs from the writer’s own), refine it (when the view is useful but incomplete or partially mistaken), or build on it (when the view is in agreement with the writer’s, and the writer can harness it to make a point).
From an art history paper on Monet’s The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train (1877): These complex subjects contradict Zola’s assertion that “the task [the Impressionist] undertakes is not that of representing a particular thought or historical act” (425). The subject matter in Arrival of a Train does indeed represent a titanic historical conflict. It pits the modern world of the Industrial Revolution against the traditional world of old French Catholicism.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

13. How to format a reference and citation
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

14. How to format a reference and citation
Citations will be “(Author, Date”) or (Smith, 1990). If you choose to quote, then you NEED to put in page numbers, such as (Smith, 1990, pp. 173). If you do not use quotes, you do not need to place page numbers in your citations.
Every citations should be linked to a full reference. That is, if you have the citation, there should be a full reference in the back of the paper. If the paper is not cited in the text, then there should be no reference
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

15. How to format a reference and citation
References should include:
The authors last name, first and other initials
The year of the publication
The title of the publication
If it is a journal article, then the name of the journal
If it is a journal article, then the Volume and Number of the article
The page number of the article
If you’re citing an authored or edited book, then you need the location of the publisher and the full name of the publisher
If you’re citing a chapter in a book, then you need the editor of the book, the book name and the page numbers that the chapter appears.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

16. How to format a reference and citation
Examples of book references
Thomas Elmqvist, MichailFragkias, Julie Goodness, BurakGüneralp, Peter J. Marcotullio, Robert I. McDonald, Sue Parnell, MarteSendstad, MariaSchewenius, Karen C. Seto and Cathy Wilkinson, (Eds.) (2013) Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities, A Global Assessment, Frankfurt, Springer.
Ronan Paddison, Peter J. Marcotullio and Mike Douglass, (Eds.) (2010) Connected Cities: Hinterlands, Hierarchies and Networks and Beyond, Urban Studies Economy, Volume 3, Thousand Oaks, Sage publications.
Peter J. Marcotullio and Gordon McGranahan, (Eds.) (2007) Scaling Urban Environmental Challenges: From Local to Global and Back, London: Earthscan, James & James, Pub.
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

17. How to format a reference and citation
Examples of book chapters
Robert I. McDonald, Peter J. Marcotullio, and Burak Güneral, (2013) “Urbanization and global trends in biodiversity and ecosystem services” in Thomas Elmqvist, Michail Fragkias, Julie Goodness, Burak Güneralp, Peter J. Marcotullio, Robert I. McDonald, Sue Parnell, Marte Sendstad, Maria Schewenius, Karen C. Seto and Cathy Wilkinson, (Eds.) Urbanization, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Challenges and Opportunities, A Global Assessment, Frankfurt, Springer, pp
Peter J. Marcotullio and William Solecki, (2013) “Sustainability and Cities: Meeting the Grand Challenge for the 21st Century,” in Linda Sygna, Karen O’Brien, and Johanna Wolf (Eds.) A Changing Environment for Human Security: New Agendas for Research, Policy and Action, London, Earthscan Pub, pp
Peter J. Marcotullio (2012) “New York City” in Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability Volume 8, The Americas and Oceania: Assessing Sustainability Great Barrington, MA; Berkshire Publishing Group, LLC, pp  
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

18. How to format a reference and citation
Examples of journal articles
William D. Solecki, Karen C. Seto and Peter J. Marcotullio, (2013) “It's time for an urbanization science,” Environment, 55(1):12-16.
 Peter J. Marcotullio, Jochen Albrecht, Andrea Sarzynski and Niels Schulz, (2012) “The geography of urban greenhouse gas emissions in Asia: A regional approach,” Global Environmental Change, 22(4):
Peter J. Marcotullio and Niels B. Schulz, (2007) “Comparison of energy transitions between the USA and developing and industrializing economies,” World Development, 35(10):
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.

19. In your final paper Guidelines for references: 15 references
Only 5 can be newspaper, or web articles
10 must be books, chapters, journal articles or government documents
Consider using a reference software (EndNote, Zotero, Reforks, etc)
This material was taken from “Five Ways to Use Sources in Academic Argument” by Kerry Walk of Princeton University. The original document can be found on our Blackboard cite.