1. Animal Behaviour and Plant Responses
3.4

2. Orientation
A behaviour in which an animal positions itself in a certain way in relation to its surroundings.

3. Orientation Behaviour
Taxis
Kinesis
Migration
Homing

4. Taxis ( Taxes pl )

5. Describe taxis
The movement of the whole animal towards or away from a stimulus coming from one direction.

6. Kinesis

7. Describe kinesis
The random movement of an organism where the rate of movement depends on the intensity of the stimulus.
Eg. Slaters in dry conditions move faster than in humid conditions

8. Types of kinesis Orthokinesis
The intensity of the stimulus determines the speed of movement.

10. Types of kinesis Klinokinesis
The intensity of the stimulus determines the rate of turning.
Eg Some flatworms, which prefer darkness turn more quickly in light.
Why ?

11. This increases their chances of finding darkness again so increases their chances of survival.

12. Chitons

13. Explain why kinesis is an advantage to a named animal.
When slaters are dry, it is important to move quickly to encounter optimum environmental conditions ie moisture to prevent dehydration as their gills depend on water for gas exchange.
It is important to move randomly to increase the chances of finding humid conditions.

15. Positive rheotaxis

16. Fun Spot

17. E7-one famous godwit

18. Satellite tracking of E7

19. Migration

20. Migration
Migration is an active movement of populations of animals from one area to another, for a specific purpose such as breeding, avoiding bad weather or seeking food.
Migrations usually involve long distances, a return journey, and occur at regular times.

21. Triggers (environmental cues) for migration
Shortened photoperiod (day length)Eg birds –godwits and shining cuckoos
Decrease in air temperature eg butterflies
Lack of food eg wilderbeest
Maturing sex organs eg eels and salmon
Decrease in water temperature eg whales

22. Link between reproductive success and migration
Animals that migrate, compared with ones of the same species that do not migrate,
grow larger and have better reproductive success.
Eg Salmon that migrate grow to an average 100cm compared with 20cm for animals that do not migrate.
Also migratory salmon produce 125 times the number of eggs.

23. Advantages & Disadvantages of Migration
Why Migrate?
Examples to back up ideas?
Pg 54 Meg Bailey – bullet points.

24. How long distance migration could have evolved
Continental drift
As the land masses moved apart, birds that fed on one landmass, but bred in another area, may have continued to fly between each place, with the journeys getting longer as the continents drifted apart.

25. How long distance migration could have evolved
Ice Ages
Ice ages and interglacial periods both change the flora and fauna of habitats. These changes may have forced animals to move over long distances to find sufficient food or breeding grounds.

26. Identify the issues that would drive the continuation of migratory behaviour. P12a.
The availability of food, mates, nesting sites and warmer temperatures drive the continuity of migration.
If migration results in higher reproductive success, then migration is worthwhile.
Overall, migration is a successful strategy for certain species as the benefits outweigh the risks.

27. Migration of Godwits
E7!

28. Shining Cuckoo

29. Grey warbler

30. Grey Warbler feeding a shining cuckoo

33. Migration involves complex calculations

34. NCEA Question Cuckoo
The cuckoo does not have to spend any energy rearing its young, so it can put more energy into producing eggs. It is able to produce more eggs as it has time to feed itself and remain in peak condition for egg production.
The host bird expends energy rearing the cuckoo instead of its own young. This means that the grey warbler numbers are fewer than there could be, so this could endanger the species in adverse conditions.

35. NCEA Question Cuckoo
The host bird has less time to feed itself and therefore will not be in such good condition and possibly health at the end of the breeding season.
Overall, the strategy of the cuckoo benefits this species but has a negative impact on the grey warbler species.

36. Cockoo

37. Homing

38. Homing
The ability of an animal to find its way to a home site, after it has been away looking for food, water or mates.
Homing may also take place over unfamiliar territory after an animal has been displaced.
Eg Homing pigeons

39. Reasons for homing To feed young eg blackbirds
For warmth and shelter eg a kiwi burrow
For protection from predators eg birds roost in groups in the same trees, which they know are safe.

40. Digger wasp

41. Homing using chemical trails

42. Homing in Salmon
Salmon travel from the river of their birth out to sea where they grow to maturity.
When they are ready to reproduce, they may travel hundreds of Kms in open sea to the river where they hatched.

43. To navigate at sea they may use a magnetic compass and polarised light.
To find their own river, they use the taste and smell of the water at the river mouth.
Chemicals from vegetation and rocks give each river a different taste.

44. Bee waggle dance

45.
Short
Long

46. Homing using the sun eg birds and bees

47. Waggle dances

48. Methods of navigation used in homing
1. Using familiar landmarks

50. Solar navigation in birds
The bird thinks it is 9.00AM
Therefore the sun should be 45o on its left.
So it turns WEST to position sun on its left.
It now thinks it is flying south.

52. Polarised light

53. Using polarised light

54. Ultra Violet Light

55. Earth’s magnetic field

56. Magnetic Field Navigation
1. By sensing the angle of the magnetic fields lines are at any given point.
2.By sensing the strength of the mag. field lines at any given point.
Both angle and strength vary and could be learnt to build up a mental map.

57. Stellar navigation-P19 Advantage
A stellar compass does not require an internal biological clock.
Reason: Unlike the sun, the SCP is fixed so a clock is not required to track the stars across the sky.

58. Disadvantages
1. Cloudy days hide the sun
2. Birds migrating from the southern to the northern hemisphere have to learn the stars around the NCP.

59. Ecological Significance of migration
To reduce intraspecific competition. Eg
In salmon, the young exploit a freshwater niche and the adults a sea niche.
Also as the young salmon move to the sea, this may also have the advantage of losing parasites.

60. Explain the need for multiple navigation methods.
Navigation is finding one’s way using clues, compasses and signals from the environment. Eg the sun compass.
It is important to have more than one navigation method, in the event that the main method cannot be used. Eg clouds block the sun so a magnetic compass may be used.

61. Discuss experience versus genetic programming in migration.

62. Discuss experience versus genetic programming in migration
Starling migration
Starlings in Northern Europe migrate to France-their migration pattern is learned migration.
When caught during their migration, and displaced, the adults used experience to reach France, whereas the juveniles ended up in Spain as they continued in the same direction as before their capture.
This innate behaviour would have been successful, if they had not been displaced.

63. Genetics of Migration
Blackcaps from Eastern Europe go East over Turkey when migrating to Africa, therefore avoiding the Alps and the Mediterranean.
Populations of blackcaps in Western Europe also avoid the mountains and sea by travelling West over Spain.

64. When the two groups were interbred, the “hybrids” flew a middle, dangerous route over the Alps and across the widest part of the Mediterranean.
This indicates that genetic, innate information is blended from the two groups.

65. Conclusion
Both experience and genes have a role in orientating birds during migration.

67. Tropisms
A tropism is a growth response towards or away from a stimulus which is directional ie coming from a particular direction.

68. Phototropism in mung beans

69. Phototropism
The growth response of plants towards light coming from one direction.
It is caused by the hormone AUXIN, which is produced in the tips of shoots.
Auxin causes cells to ELONGATE.

70. Auxin causes plants to bend towards light.

71. IAA stimulates H+ pumps in the cell membrane.
H+ pumps secrete H+ into the cell wall, decreasing its pH.
This acidifies the cell wall which activates pH-dependent enzymes and breaks bonds between cellulose microfibrils.
The wall "loosens" because of the broken bonds and the turgor pressure expands the cell.

72. Action of auxin

74. Explain phototropism
Auxin, called Indole acetic acid ( IAA ) is produced in the tips of plants.
It passes down the shoot.
When the shoot is lit from one side, the auxin moves away from the brighter side and down darker side.
It accumulates in the cells on the dark side.

75. Explain phototropism-cont
This causes the cell wall to become more elastic, absorb more water, and elongate due to increased turgor pressure.
So the cells on the darker side get bigger compared with the cells on the lighter side.
It is the difference in cell size that causes the plant to bend towards the light.

76. Explain the biological advantage of bending towards light.
Plants bend towards light to increase their surface area to sunlight.
This increases the rate of photosynthesis and the glucose and starch made.
This results in greater growth and reproduction for the plant.

77. Experiments with shoot tips

78. Coleoptiles-sheaths around shoots

80. Pohutukawa roots are negatively phototropic

81. Rata roots are negatively phototropic

82. Geotropism-P28 The growth response of plants to gravity.
Shoots are negatively geotropic - they grow against gravity.
Roots are positively geotropic ie they grow with the force of gravity.

83. Diagram showing the cell structure in roots
Root hairs
Zone of elongation
Meristematic tissue
Root cap

84. Explain geotropism in shoots and roots.P28
When a plant is placed on its side, auxin and amyloplasts accumulate in the cells on the lower side of the plant.
Auxin is produced in the root tip and moves along the root.
In stems, excess auxin causes elongation of cells on the lower side and the stem bends up.

85. In roots, the excess auxin has the opposite effect
In roots, the excess auxin has the opposite effect. It inhibits growth of cells.
The cells on the upper side continue to grow and this causes the root to bend down. It is the difference in cell size between the upper and lower sides that causes the bending.

86. Gravitropism ( Geotropism )

89. Amyloplasts

90. Explain the biological advantage of plants being able to respond to gravity.
Shoots are negatively geotropic.
This benefits the plant, as it orientates itself so that the maximum surface area of leaves is exposed to light for photosynthesis.
This increases starch production, which can be used for overall growth and reproduction.

91. Gravitropism video

93. Explain the biological advantage of plants being able to respond to gravity-cont below lines
Roots are positively geotropic.
This benefits the plants as the roots grow down into the soil and anchor the plant.
In the soil, the roots take up water and nutrients for metabolic processes.

94. Thigmotropism

95. Thigmotropism

96. Thigmotropism-P29
The growth response to touch or a solid surface, shown by many climbing plants.
Plants use other plants to climb up. This conserves their own energy, as less energy is required for growing internal structures for support.
Eg tendrils have a coiling response when they touch a surface such as a pole.
This is positive thigmotropism.

97. Thigmotropism in roots
Roots use touch sensitivity to find their way downward through the soil, moving away from objects like stones in their path.
This is called negative thigmotropism, since they move away from the object that touches them.

98. Explain thigmotropism
Touch stimulates the production of auxin, which then moves to the opposite side of the tendril.
The increased auxin causes increased elasticity of cell walls, an increase in water up take and turgor pressure, and so the cells elongate.
This causes bending around the support.

99. Discuss the biological advantage of plants being thigmotropic
Plant can maximise access to light for photosynthesis, improving competitive success.
Plant can put resources into rapid upward growth rather than production of strong internal support structures  outgrowing competitors.
Flowers are placed in an optimum position for pollination, this increases reproductive success.
Seeds are in an optimum position for dispersal.

100. Chemotropism-P30
The growth response of plants towards or away from chemicals.
Eg roots grow towards nutrients in fertilisers ie positive chemotropism
Roots grow away from copper pipes as copper in high concentrations is toxic.
Negative chemotropism

101. Pollen tube grows towards the ovary in plants Positive chemotropism

102. Hydrotropism-p30 The growth response of plants to water.
Plant roots grow towards water in the soil
This is positive hydrotropism.

103. Heliotropism-P30
The movement of flowers or leaves to follow the sun during the day.
This is a type of phototropism
Eg Sunflowers and lupin leaves

104. Why follow the sun ?
Researchers have found that flowers that do this stay warmer inside than those that remain stationary. As a result, they attract more insects over a longer period and have higher rates of pollination.

105. Nastic responses
The response of plants to non-directional stimuli ie that do not come from a particular direction.
Examples of stimuli could be heat, light or humidity, which are all around a plant.

106. Thermonasty The response of plants to heat that is all around.
Eg Crocuses and tulips open when it is warm and close when it is cold.
Adaptive advantage ?
Reduces heat loss and increases energy available for growth and reproduction

107. Thermonasty in crocuses

108. Thermonasty in tulips

109. Kuchenhoff - Holland

111. Photonasty
The response of plants to light that is not coming from a particular direction.
Eg Evening primrose opens at night and closes during the day.
Reason : Pollinators such as moths are around at night. This prevents daytime pollinators taking the nectar.

112. Evening primrose - on the night shift

113. White flowers glow at night as they are more reflective

114. Explain how petals open and close.
Petals open and close because of changes in turgor pressure in the upper epidermal cells of the flower.
So water is pumped into the cells in the morning and pumped out at night.
This is an endogenous rhythm controlled by an internal biological clock.

115. How do these movements in plants enhance reproductive success P32.
Closing at night prevents night time pollinators eg moths taking the nectar. These pollinators may not have the adaptations to carry out pollination for the flower, so energy invested in nectar and pollen production would be wasted.
This would decrease the species reproductive success.
Also, closing flowers at night, may increase male reproductive fitness, as pollen would be protected against dew and rain at night.

116. Pollination

117. Many insects are adapted to pollinate one type of plant

118. Petals that close over reproductive parts can protect against dew and rain.

119. Nyctinasty
A special type of photonasty in which plants lower or close their leaves at night.
This may serve to: (a) prevent moonlight from inducing phytochrome responses; or (b) conserve water/heat

120. Nyctinasty
Maranta day ( left ) night ( right )

122. Haptonasty- Biozone P170
A special form of thigmotropism, in which leaves like Venus fly trap and mimosa respond to touch.
Advantage ?
Mimosa-to stop browsers as thorns are exposed.
Venus fly trap-to catch protein-rich insects.

123. Mimosa

124. Mimosa– responding to touch. Haptonasty

125. Pulvinus

126. Explain how haptonasty occurs
Haptonasty occurs because of rapid loss of turgor pressure in cells at the base of leaves.
When a leaf is touched, electrical signals pass to these cells.
This causes potassium ions to be pumped out.
As a result, water moves out by osmosis and the leaf collapses.

127. Venus Fly Trap

128. Venus Fly Trap -Haptonasty

129. Taxis in plants
The movement of the whole plant towards or away from a stimulus coming from one direction.

130. Euglena is positively phototaxic

131. Taxis-cont Eg Euglena swim towards light to photosynthesise
( Called positive phototaxis)
They also swim towards food.
This is called positive chemotaxis

132. Plant hormones-p35
Hormones are chemicals that are made in one place in an organism, and travel to a site, and bring about a response.

133. Auxin Indole acetic acid IAA-
Plant hormones that regulate or control growth

134. Auxin Causes growth in stems Promotes elongation of cells.
Causes plants to bend towards light
Responsible for apical dominance

135. Gibberellic acid Stimulates elongation of stems along with auxin
Breaks dormancy in seeds and buds

136. Cytokinins Essential for growth in young fruit.
Keeps root and stem in balance
Promotes cell division in the roots.

137. Abscisic Acid Promotes seed dormancy
Closes guard cells around stomata when there is a shortage of water.

138. Ethylene ( C2H4)
Gas ripens fruit
Promotes leaf fall

140. Biological Timing

141. Biological Timing

142. Biological Timing
Many plants and animals show rhythmic activities, which are linked to regular cycles in the environment , such as day and night, tidal cycles, and temperature of the seasons. 
These are caused by astronomical cycles.

143. Biological Rhythms A regularly repeated activity or event.
Eg feeding at a certain time of day.

144. Describe the period of the rhythm
The length of time between successive activity peaks of an organism, when it is in its natural environment.

145. Period of Rhythm

146. Types of Rhythms
Daily rhythm: period of 24 hours

147. Tidal rhythms
Tidal : period of 12.4 hours

148. Lunar rhythms
Lunar : period of 29.5 days

149. Semi lunar rhythms
Semi lunar : period of days

150. Annual rhythms
Annual : a period of days.

151. Types of daily rhythms
There are three types of activity patterns shown in animals with daily rhythms.
Diurnal:active during the day,inactive at night
Nocturnal: active at night, inactive during the day.
Crepuscular: active mainly at twilight ie dawn or dusk .

152. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these activity patterns.
Diurnal advantages:
Less heat required to maintain body temperature as the heat from the sun warms the environment.
(2) Avoid nocturnal predators
(3) Coloured flowers and UV markings can be seen by pollinators-colour not visible at night.
(4) Animals use vivid colour display to attract mates.

153. Disadvantages of diurnal activity:
(1) Organisms more susceptible to desiccation
(2) Clearly visible to diurnal predators.
( 3 ) Sleeping at night can be dangerous if there are predators that can locate by smell, sight.

154. Nocturnal Behaviour Advantages (1) Avoid diurnal predators
(2) Avoid desiccation from the sun
(3) Avoid damage from UV light
Disadvantages
(1) Greater expenditure of energy maintaining body heat.
(2) Visible to nocturnal predators

155. Crepuscular Behaviour
Advantages
(1) Not clearly visible to diurnal predators
(2) Problem with UV light and desiccation is minimised

156. Crepuscular Behaviour
Disadvantages
(1) Shorter feeding time.
(2) Shorter time for finding mates.
(3) Could be seen by both nocturnal and diurnal predators.

157. Control of rhythms by internal biological clocks
Describe a biological clock
An internal timing mechanism by which organisms can measure time, making rhythmical activities possible.

158. Suprachiasmatic nuclei - linked to the pineal gland

159. Functions of Biological Clocks
1. Synchronisation with the environment
2. Anticipation or getting ready for changes in the environment
3. Time compensation eg to navigate during migration.

160. Synchronisation
On a daily basis, animals and plants need to synchronise with the environment for feeding, mating, avoiding certain predators or avoiding desiccation.
Eg(1) Many animals such as birds and monkeys depend on light and their colour vision to locate ripe fruit.

161. (2) The worm that causes elephantitis in humans, lies deep in tissue during the day, but comes to the surface at night, so that it can be transported by biting mosquitoes to other hosts.

162. Synchronisation on an annual basis
(1) Reproduction
Birds and other animals congregate to mate. Eg gannets at Murawai

163. Royal Albatross- Dunedin

164. Synchronisation on an annual basis-cont
(2) Migration
Migrating on mass benefits the individuals and the species.
There is pooled knowledge, birds take rests from leading ( conserves energy ), and moving on mass may reduce the risk of predation.

165. Pollination and seed dispersal

166. Synchronisation on an annual basis
Pollination and seed dispersal
Flowering is often timed to coincide with the warmer months when pollinators are more abundant and conditions are more favourable for seed production and ripening.
Also germination of seeds occur when conditions are favourable ie in spring when the ground warms up and it is wet.

167. Synchronisation of internal physiological processes
Females in herding animals such as deer and sheep undergo annual hormonal changes that make them build up fat reserves in the autumn ready for mating.
They become fertile to coincide with peak fertility in males.
Females in peak condition are more likely to conceive and produce healthy offspring.

168. Anticipation or getting ready for a change in the environment.
Eg Hibernating or migrating animals build up excess fat layers before the event, to provide heat energy or insulation against the cold.

169. Time compensation
Having an internal biological clock allows animals to navigate during migration ( godwits ) and homing ( bees )
They know where the sun should be at certain times of the day, and they use this knowledge to keep on a fixed course.

170. Describe an endogenous rhythm
A rhythm that is controlled by an internal biological clock and continues in constant conditions, for a limited time, after the environmental stimulus is removed.
Example: Mice are nocturnal and will become active at the time of dusk, even when kept in constant daylight or constant darkness.

172. Exogenous rhythms
A rhythm that is directly controlled by the external environment stimuli which is detected by an organism.
Eg Kangaroo rats are nocturnal, but only come out to feed if the moon is set ie it is dark. However, they will override this endogenous rhythm and feed when the moon is up, but the light is hidden by clouds. This activity is an exogenous rhythm.

174. Evidence for Internal Clocks
If an animal has an endogenous rhythm controlled by an internal biological clock, then the rhythm will continue in constant conditions.
When a rhythm continues in constant conditions it is said to be free running.

175. Endogenous rhythms rarely have the same period as the astronomical cycles or tidal cycles, therefore the rhythms are given different names.

176. Tidal Lunar circatidal Semi-lunar circasemi-lunar
Rhythm in normal conditions: Rhythm in Constant conditions
Daily circadian
Annual circannual
Tidal Lunar circatidal
Semi-lunar circasemi-lunar

177. Entrainment
The resetting of an internal biological clock by a zeitgeber in the environment such as the light at dawn.

178. Zeitgeber
An environmental cue that resets a biological clock. Eg light at dawn for diurnal organisms or temperature change for hibernating animals

180. Phase shifting
When the onset of the period of the rhythm is changed, usually by an environmental event such as a change in light regime.
The phase shift is the time between the peak of the original rhythm and the peak of the new rhythm.

183. Explain how phase shifting can occur
Phase shifting can occur when a particular
environmental cue changes.
Eg(1) Light at dawn and dusk gradually changes as days lengthen or shorten. The animal undergoes a slight phase shift to synchronise with the new light regime in its environment.
(2) A change in temperature eg an increase in temp. in plants during a cold period can cause a phase shift in the rate of photosynthesis. Related to enzyme activity.

186. Seasonal Behaviour Changing seasons bring changes in: Temperature
Light intensity
Day length (photoperiod)
Food availability Weather

188. Seasonal Events in plants and animals
Flowering
Seed and fruit formation
Leaf fall
Hibernation-inactivity in winter
Aesivation-inactivity in summer to avoid dry conditions
Diapause-growth pause in insect life cycle.
Eg cricket eggs need a period of cold to begin development.

189. Explain the biological advantage of having the events happen at certain times of the year.
Organisms can avoid adverse conditions and make the most of favourable conditions.

190. Biological Clocks in Plants
Since responses in plants usually involve growth, which takes time, plants must be able to prepare for events in the environment.
Eg Seedlings need to grow and be ready to produce flowers when weather is favourable and the pollinators are around.

191. Photoperiodism
Is the RESPONSE of plants to the photoperiod ( daylength)

192. Photoperiod
Photoperiod is the length of daylight in a 24 hour period

193. Three categories of plants
Short Day
Long Day
Day Neutral

194. Short Day Plants Flower when the days are SHORT
They flower when the nights are LONGER than a CRITICAL value.
In SDPs it is the NIGHT LENGTH which is critical
All species have different CDL

195. SDPs
Chrysanthemums
CDL-Chrysanthemums are short day plants, which require short days or long nights to flower.
The critical day length is around 13 hours.
They flower naturally in AUTUMN

196. Pointsettias SDP
Photoperiod of 12 to 12½ hours, when the night temperatures are less than 21OC.
However, a longer night or shorter day is required at higher temperatures.

197. Long Day Plants LDP
Flower when the days are long and the nights are short.
They will only flower when the night is LESS than a critical value.
LDPs flower in spring and summer
Carnation Clover
Pea Barley
Oat Ryegrass
Lettuce Wheat

198. Day Neutral Plants Flower at any time
They have no photoperiodic response.
Day neutral plants flower after attaining an overall developmental stage or age, or in response to alternative environmental stimuli, rather than in response to photoperiod.
temperate zone cultivars –
Cucumber
Tomato
Fava bean
Rose
Maize
many tropical cultivars are short day plants.

199. Cellular Control of Flowering
Flowering is controlled by a protein called PHYTOCHROME, which is made in the leaves of plants.
It has two forms.

200. Two wavelengths of light control flowering
665nm 725nm

201. Light: An Energy Waveform
wavelength nm

202. Forms of phytochrome
Phytochrome red (Pr or P665), which absorbs red light of wavelength 665 nm .
P665

203. Phytochrome 725
2. Phytochrome far red (Pfr or P725), which absorbs far red light of wavelength 725nm.
P725 is the ACTIVE FORM of phytochrome.
P725

204. The energy from red light converts phytochrome 665 to phytochrome 725

205. During the day time P665 and P725 are rapidly interconverted.

206. Because there is more red then far red light in the sky,there is a net build up of P725 during the daytime.
P725
P725
P725
P665

207. Flowering
When the days are long enough, sufficient P725 builds up and LDP flower.
When days are short and the nights are long, there is excess P665 and SDPs flower.
It is the ratio of P665:P725 that is critical for different species of plants.

209. Critical Day Length

211. Red Light-665nm
Far red light-725nm

212. The effects of red and far red light

213. Germination of seeds under trees
Red light promotes germination of seeds.
But only far red light can pass through chlorophyll.
But chlorophyll absorbs red light

214. Meerkat-watching for danger

215. Group lookout

216. Superb Lyrebird imitating construction work -

217. Elephants-finding food

218. Meerkats-co-operative parenting

219. Elephants protect their young

220. Bison protecting young

221. Baboon troop

222. Gannets-breed together

223. Gannets-breed together

224. Formation flying

225. Penguins huddling to prevent heat loss.

226. Pelicans hunting fish

227. Wolves hunting as a team

228. Leaf cutter ants collect food for colony

229. Ants build a bridge

230. Baboon

232. Baboon’s defense weapons

233. Pair bond
It is a stable relationship between a particular male and female that ensures co-operative behaviour for mating and the care of off spring

234. Parental Care-two strategies
A large number of off spring- no parental care
R selected species-reproduce many off spring when the opportunity arises

235. Reproductive Strategy
Strategy –some will survive in spite of the parents investing no time or energy into this part of the reproductive process.
They invest more energy into producing more off spring, often in a short cycle of time.

236. Strategy Two Few off spring, intense parental care.
K selected species-reproduce until they reach the carrying capacity (K) of the environment

237. Adaptive advantage and implications
The offspring are more likely to survive
and they learn the skills for survival, such as edible foods and hazards in the environment.
Implications
There is a cost to the parents-they invest considerable time, energy, effort and sometimes risk into raising their offspring.
A parent may get injured defending their young, or may go without food themselves if there is a shortage.

238. Extent of parental care
Born immature and dependent.

239. Born precocial Born advanced-ie able to run, hide and feed.
Ground dwelling birds eg pukeko, pheasants, ducks

240. Monogamy

241. Polygamy

242. Polyandry

243. Polygynandry

244. Aggressive Behaviour-p78
A complex behaviour usually associated with competition for resources or hunting for prey.
May be between the same or different species.

245. Agonistic behaviour
Associated with CONFLICT behaviour among members of the SAME species.

246. Competition
Intraspecific competition-between individuals of the same species.
This is most intense because they are competing for the same resources.

247. Competition
For food, mates, space, nest sites, nesting materials

248. Sexual Dimorphism

249. Territorial Behaviour
A territory is an area occupied by an animal, a pair or a group, and is DEFENDED against others. They do not overlap.

250. Home range
An area around a territory that is not defended, but is used to get food, nesting materials, water and any other necessary resources. They may overlap.

251. Leks
A lek is an area where males gather to compete with one another for a mate.
They then compete with one another for a mating territory within the lek.

252. Reproductive strategy
The most dominant males establish themselves in the best territories in the lek. Females are attracted to the males with the best lek.
They mate then leave the area to raise their young on their own.
Examples: Kakapo, grouse

253. Grouse in a lek

254. Sage grouse

255. Capercailly

256. Swans feed on algae at the bottom of ponds

257. Hierarchy
A linear progression or rank order from the most dominant ( alpha individual ) to the least dominant individual.

258. Dominance postures

259. Dominance posture

261. Submissive posture

262. Baboon troop on the move

263. Interspecific Relationships
Interactions between organisms of different species.

264. Interspecific competition
Competition between organisms of different species.

265. Predation
Predation is a feeding relationship involving a predator, which kills other organisms
and a prey, which is eaten by the predator.

266. Predators
Eat other organisms

267. Prey
Eaten by a predator

268. Angler fish dangling a bait

269. Using bait-snapping turtle

270. Using snares-glow worm

271. Using tools

272. Using tools

273. Leafy sea dragon

274. Countershading

275. False Eyes

276. Batesian Mimicry

277. Mullerian mimicry

278. Dilution Effect

279. Confusion Effect

280. Concealment of young by adults

281. Plant Defences
Produces hydrogen cyanide

282. Predator-prey graphs

283. Predator-prey graphs

284. Parasitism
A relationship in which an organism harms another organism, the host, by living in it or on it. The parasite gains food but generally does not kill the host.
It would have no food source if it killed its host.

285. Ectoparasites-live on the outside of a host

286. Occasionally the host wins !

287. Parasitism-one benefits, one harmed
Tapeworm-endoparasite

288. Social parasites
In brood parasitism, an animal such as a cuckoo uses a member of another species to feed its young.

289. Mistletoe-parasitic plant

290. Epiphytes-not parasitic

291. Epiphytes Do not parasitise the host plant.
Instead they perch on it and do not take water or nutrients from it.

292. Parasitism in plants
A plant that grows on and into another plant the host and harms it by using its water and nutrients.

293. Woodrose-Dactylanthus taylorri

294. Mutualism-both benefit

295. Clown fish and anemone
The clownfish has a symbiotic, or mutually beneficial, relationship with the sea anemone. It catches most of its food by cooperating with its host anemone. The clownfish will leave the safety of the anemone's tentacles and swim out among the nearby reef. Its brilliant colours attract larger fish, who, lured by the thought of a meal, follow it back to the anemone and are stung by the anemone one's tentacles. The anemone then consumes the fish, and the clownfish feeds on the remains.

296. Mutualism
An interspecific relationship in which two dissimilar species in a partnership both benefit by the association.

297. Commensalism
An interspecific relationship between two organisms in which one benefits but the other is not harmed.
Eg Epiphytes-plants that perch in trees, gain height to catch light for photosynthesis
Shark and remora fish which ride on sharks ( reduces their energy output) and eat food left over from the shark ( again reduces energy finding food)

298. Commensalism-one benefits the other is unharmed
Epiphytes-perching plants

299. Disadvantages of mutualism and commensalism.
It would be a disadvantage to one species in the relationship if the other species declined in an area or disappeared.
This would be detrimental if the dependent species did not have an alternative species to form a partnership with.

300. Interspecific competitive behaviour.
Competition between different species.
This is more intense if they are closely related species and are competing for the same resources.
The better adapted will eventually exclude the other.

301. Competitive Exclusion-Gause’s principle.
Two species cannot coexist if they have identical ecological requirements.
The better adapted species will out compete the less well adapted, which will have to move to another area.

302. Competitive Exclusion-in barnacles

303. Competitive exclusion

304. Competitive exclusion by mallard ducks

305. Endemic grey duck

306. Ecological niche.
The niche of an organism includes the following aspects: its habitat, its adaptations to enable to survive in its habitat, and its trophic level.

307. Stratification-vertical pattern

308. Stratification
Is the distribution of different species in a vertical pattern in a community.

309. Zonation pattern

310. Zonation
Is the distribution of different layers in a horizontal pattern in a community.

311. Zonation-horizontal pattern

312. Explain why different species are found in different zones.
Different species may be better adapted to different abiotic factors found along a gradient. Eg as temperatures decrease up a mountain, the cold-adapted species increase.
Two species that have the same requirements could be in different zones because the better adapted out- competes the other.

313. Succession- change of species over time
Climax
Moss Bracken fern Tree ferns Kauri
&Lichen Manuka

314. Succession.
The change in species composition in an area over time.

315. Explain why succession of species takes place.
One species gradually changes the conditions so that another species can become established.
Eg Moss and lichen colonise bare ground.
They decompose and provide minerals for another species like bracken to grow.
Bracken in turn provides shade and more minerals for species like manuka to grow.

316. Antibiosis
The inhibition of the growth of bacteria by the production of chemicals by fungi.

317. Antibiosis Eg fungi like penicillin kill bacteria

318. Alleopathy
A plant releases a toxic substance into the soil which prevents other plants growing too close. This reduces competition for resources.

319. Psyllids

320. Ant taking honeydew from a psyllid