1. Chapter Fourteen
Leadership

2. Chapter Fourteen Outline
Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Trait Theory
Behavioral Styles Theory
Situational Theories
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Path-Goal Theory
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

3. Chapter Fourteen Outline (continued)
14-1b
Chapter Fourteen Outline (continued)
From Transactional to Charismatic Leadership
How Does Charismatic Leadership Transform Followers?
Research and Managerial Implications
Additional Perspectives on Leadership
The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership
Substitutes for Leadership
Servant-Leadership
Superleadership

4. Trait Theory
14-2a
Leadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from followers.
Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary by - intelligence - dominance - self-confidence - level of energy and activity - task-relevant knowledge
Contemporary findings show that - people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance - people want their leaders to be credible - credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent

5. Trait Theory (continued)
14-2b
Trait Theory (continued)
Gender and leadership
- men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively
- women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women
- men and women were equally assertive
- women executives, when rated by their peers, managers and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria

6. Behavioral Styles Theory
14-3
Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader behavior. 1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers 2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing
University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that were similar to the Ohio State studies - one style was employee centered and the other was job centered
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles found by crossing concern for production and concern for people
Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

7. Skills and Best Practices: Tips for Improving Leader Effectiveness
14-4
Behavior Recommended Behaviors
Listen
Intensely listen to what others have to say. Determine the true cause of performance problems.
Examine
Think through problems from all perspectives. Do not play favorites and find solutions that benefit everyone involved.
Assist
Help others to learn from mistakes and errors.
Develop
Explain the rationale for decisions and implement fair policies and procedures.
Encourage
Provide employees with the resources needed to do a job. Gently push people to advance into more demanding roles.
Recognize
Praise people for their good work. Focus on the positive whenever possible.
Source: “CEO’s Need to Listen, Examine, Assist,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2001, p D2.

8. Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency Model
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Figure 14-1
Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Situational Control
High Control Situations
Moderate Control Situations
Low Control Situations
Leader-member relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Good Good Good
High High High
Strong Weak Strong
Good Poor Poor
Low High High
Weak Strong Strong
Poor Poor
Low Low
Strong Weak
Situation
I II III
IV V VI
VII VIII
Optimal Leadership Style
Task Motivated Leadership
Relationship Motivated Leadership
Task Motivated Leadership

9. House’s Path-Goal Theory
14-6
Figure 14-2
Employee Characteristics - Locus of control - Task ability - Need for achievement - Experience - Need for clarity
Leadership Styles - Directive - Supportive - Participative - Achievement oriented
Employee Attitudes and Behavior - Job satisfaction - Acceptance of leader - Motivation
Environmental Factors - Employee’s task - Authority system - Work group

10. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
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Figure 14-3
Leader Behavior
High
Participating S3
Share ideas and
facilitate in
decision making
Selling S2
Explain decisions and
provide opportunity for
clarification
Relationship Behavior (supportive behavior)
Delegating S4
Turn over
responsibility for
decisions and
implementation
Telling S1
Provide specific
instructions and closely
supervise performance
Low
Low
Task Behavior
High
Follower Readiness High Moderate Low R R R2 R1
Follower-Directed Leader-Directed

11. Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership
Transactional Leadership: focuses on the interpersonal interactions between managers and employees
Transactional Leaders - use contingent rewards to motivate employees - exert corrective action only when employees fail to obtain performance goals

12. Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership (continued)
14-8b
Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes symbolic leader behavior that transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-interests
Charismatic Leaders - use visionary and inspirational messages - rely on non-verbal communication - appeal to ideological values - attempt to intellectually stimulate employees - display confidence in self and followers - set high performance expectations
For class discussion: Should a leader be both transactional and charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior executives and not for entry level supervisors or managers?

13. Charismatic Model of Leadership
Figure 14-4a
Individual and
Organizational
Characteristics
Leader behavior
Effects on followers and work groups
Outcomes
Traits
Personal commitment to leader and vision
Leader establishes a vision
Increased intrinsic motivation, achievement orientation, and goal pursuit
Organizational Culture

14. Charismatic Model of Leadership (cont)
14-9b
Figure 14-4b
Individual and
Organizational
Characteristics
Leader behavior
Effects on followers and work groups
Outcomes
Traits
Self-sacrificial behavior
Organizational commitment
Task meaningfulness and satisfaction
Increased individual group, and organizational performance
Leader establishes high performance expectations and displays confidence in him/herself and the collective ability to realize the vision
Leader models the desired values, traits, beliefs, and behaviors needed to realize the vision
Increased identification with the leader and the collective interests of organizational members
Increased cohesion among workgroup members
Increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interests in goal accomplishment
Increased role modeling of charismatic leadership
Organizational Culture

15. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX Model)
14-10
This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve, and these exchanges are related to important work outcomes. - in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by mutual trust, respect and liking - out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by a lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
Research supports this model

16. Assessing your Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
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Hands-on Exercise
Assessing your Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
What is the overall quality of your LMX?
What are the career and performance implications of your LMX?
How might you improve your LMX?
Who owns the quality of a LMX (the employer or manager)? Explain.

17. Substitutes for Leadership
14-12
Substitutes for leadership represent situational variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance the effects of leadership.
Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly influence employee attitudes and performance.

18. Substitutes for Leadership
Table 14-1a
Substitutes for Leadership
Characteristic
Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary
Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary
Of the Subordinate
1. Ability, experience, training, knowledge X
2. Need for Independence
3. “Professional” orientation
4. Indifference toward organizational rewards
Of the Task
5. Unambiguous and Routine
6. Methodically invariant
7. Provides its own feedback concerning
accomplishment
8. Intrinsically satisfying.

19. Substitutes for Leadership (cont)
Table 14-1b
Characteristic
Relationship-Oriented or Considerate Leader Behavior is Unnecessary
Task-Oriented or Initiating Structure Leader Behavior is Unnecessary
Of the Organization
9. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas
of responsibility) X
10. Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and
procedures)
11. Highly specified and active advisory and staff
functions
12. Closely knit, cohesive work groups
13. Organizational rewards not with the leader’s
control
14. Spatial distance between superior and
subordinate
Source: Adapted from S Kerr and J M Jermier, “Substitutes for Leadership:Their Meaning and Measurement,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, December 1978, pp

20. Servant and Superleadership
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Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders focus on increased service to others rather than to oneself.
A superleader is someone who leads others to lead themselves by developing employees’ self-management skills.
Superleaders attempt to increase employees’ feelings of personal control and intrinsic motivation.

21. Characteristics of the Servant-Leader
Table 14-2a
Characteristics of the Servant-Leader
1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening to identify and clarify the needs and desires of a group.
2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with others’ feelings and emotion. An individual’s good intentions are assumed even when he or she performs poorly.
3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves and others whole in the face of failure or suffering.
4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their strengths and limitations.

22. Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
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Table 14-15b
Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than positional authority when making decisions and trying to influence others.
6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort to develop broader based conceptual thinking. Servant-leaders seek an appropriate balance between a short term, day-to-day focus and a long-term, conceptual orientation.
7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee future outcomes associated with a current course of action or situation.

23. Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
Table 14-2c
Characteristics of the Servant-Leader (continued)
8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they are stewards of the people and resources they manage.
9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people the growth of beyond their immediate work role. They people commit to fostering an environment that encourages personal, professional, and spiritual growth.
10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of Community community both within and outside the work organization.