1. Etruscans
c BCE (around the end of the Bronze Age in Europe) a group called the Villanovans occupied the North West peninsula of modern Italy
c. 750 BCE the Greeks establish colonies on the peninsula and island of Sicily
c. 600 – 500 BCE; Etruscans (probably descended from Villanovans) gain control of the Northern and Central areas of the Italian Peninsula; establish Etruria
The Greeks and Etruscans have the greatest influence on later Roman culture

2. Etruria well defended by the Alps to the North
Etruria had fertile soil and rich metal deposits; were wealthy; they worked as farmers, sailors and merchants and traded with the Greeks, among others
Their art was influenced by Greek and Near Eastern styles
Height of their power was approx. 500 BCE when their rule stretched over almost all of the peninsula

3. Round arch Porta Augusta; 100 – 200 BCE Etruscan architecture
Etruscans built walls with vaulted gates and towers to protect their cities; this gate here from modern Perugia is one of few surviving examples of monumental Etruscan architecture. They didn’t invent the round arch (the shape of the roof of the gate), but it anticipates the Roman use of the barrel vault—both cultures used the arch a lot and the Romans greatly expanded on it
Round arches use cut wedge-shape pieces of stone to create the curve, they are held together by the keystone at the top. The wedges exert an outward thrust, and therefore have to be supported either inside or out by buttressing
Like Greeks, they built their cities on grid structures, but had 2 main streets (one running N & S, the other E & W) that crossed and divided the city into quarters
Artist: Etruscan
Title: Porta Augusta
Date: 3rd to 2nd century BCE
Source/Museum: Perugia, Italy

4. Etruscan architecture
Temples based on Greek plans, but had a front porch style and the tops of the temples featured large groups of sculptures, not the pediments (like Greeks) –we know little else about their design except what was written by Roman architect Vitruvius
Also, plain, not fluted columns, adopted later by Romans and combined with other traits to create new column orders
Temples were simple in form and brightly painted and decorated with hollow terra-cotta sculpture
Title: Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple
Source/Museum: Based on archaeological evidence and descriptions by Vitruvius. University of Rome, Istituto di Etruscologia e Antichità Italiche

5. Medium: Painted terra cotta Size: height 5'10" (1.8 m)
Anavysos Kouros;
c. 530 BCE
We don’t know much about Etruscan religious beliefs, but it appears they adopted similar beliefs to the Greeks. This hollow terra-cotta figure of Apollo is from the top of an Etruscan temple from a scene depicting one of the labors of Hercules
Hollow terra-cotta is difficult because it can collapse under it’s own weight when being fired, so it was impressive that the Etruscans were so good at it, and they were fired in large kilns for a long time; requiring the ability to regulate the kiln temperature for an long time.
Shows Archaic smile like Greek sculpture of similar time; kouros, but Etruscan Apollo is clothed and much more active than the Greek; energy characteristic of Etruscan art
Artist: Master sculptor Vulca (?)
Title: Apollo
Medium: Painted terra cotta
Size: height 5'10" (1.8 m)
Date: c. 510–500 BCE
Source/Museum: Temple of Minerva, Portenaccio, Veii. / Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome
Anavysos Kouros; Marble with remnants of paint; height 6'4“; c. 530 BCE
Title: Apollo
Medium: Painted terra cotta
Size: height 5'10" (1.8 m)
Date: c. 510–500 BCE

6. Etruscans thought of grave tombs as “homes for the dead”, so they decorated them like homes and laid out the grave yards like towns
Tell us much about Etruscan daily life
Tombs almost entirely excavated below ground
This tomb features low reliefs carved out of stucco (slow drying type of plaster) showing household items and tools; pots, jugs, robes, axes, etc.
Even the dog is featured (on lower left column)
Title: Burial chamber, Tomb of the Reliefs
Date: 3rd century BCE
Source/Museum: Cerveteri

7. Deceased were place in terra-cotta urns (when cremated) or sarcophagi—like this, called portrait sarcophagi because it shows the husband and wife; the man once raised a glass, so they are eating or drinking; a happy gesture
Evolved from earlier terra-cotta urns that featured the head of the deceased
Etruscans tried to provide earthly pleasures for their dead, like Egyptians
Artist: Etruscan
Title: Sarcophagus
Medium: Terra cotta
Size: length 6"7" (2.06 m)
Date: c. 520 BCE
Source/Museum: From Cerveteri. /Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome

8. Etruscans were renowned for their bronze metal work; especially large-scale sculptures in the round like the She-wolf
Created bronzes for both funerary and domestic use
This bronze wolf, though Etruscan made, is the most famous symbol of ancient Rome and may have originally stood at the original center of ancient Rome; but only as the wolf.
The children were added in the 15th or 16th cent, CE to represent Romulus and Remus, legendary twin founders of Rome
Artist: Etruscan
Title: She-Wolf
Medium: Bronze, glass-paste eyes
Size: height 33½" (85 cm)
Date: c. 500 BCE, or 450–430 BCE with 15th or 16th century additions (the twins)
Source/Museum: Museo Capitolino, Rome

9. -Etruscans were absorbed by the Romans by 200 BCE
-legend says Rome was founded by twins Romulus and Remus, sons of the god of war, Mars (Ares)
-they were left to die on the banks of the Tiber river (on the Italian peninsula)
-a she-wolf rescued and nursed them, and they were later raised by a shepherd
-when they reached adulthood, they returned to the place where they were rescued and founded a city; c. 753 BCE
-for a time, Romans were ruled by Etruscan kings, but they over-threw them in 509 BCE and formed a republic centered in Rome
-Etruscans were absorbed by the Romans by 200 BCE
-Alternate Roman origin myth was described in the Aeneid by the poet Virgil
Left to die by wicked great-uncle; had mortal mother
When Etruscans were flourishing, latin-speaking Romans were also developing
Romans absorbed the people they conquered and imposed on them a legal, administrative and cultural code that lasted 500 years
Alternate Roman origin myth was described in the Aeneid by the poet Virgil; says the Romans were descended from Aeneas, a Trojan who was the mortal son of Venus (Aphrodite); Aeneas escaped Troy and came to Italy and founded Rome in fulfillment of a promise by Jupiter (Zeus) to Venus that these offspring were destined to rule the world.
--either way, Romans believed themselves to be descended from a god (adopted from Greek religious beliefs, but with diff names)
Archeologists say there were just permanent Neolithic settlements that developed into Rome

10. Timeline:
-c. 753 BCE; legendary establishment of settlement that becomes Rome
-c. 700 – 509 BCE; Etruscan supremacy on peninsula
-c. 509 BCE; Romans overthrow Etruscans and form a republic
-c. 275 BCE; Romans rule entire Italian peninsula
-by 200 BCE; Etruscans absorbed by Romans
-by 100 CE; Roman empire reaches from the Euphrates River in SW Asia to Scotland in the North, and all around the Mediterranean
-c. 395 CE; Roman empire finally divides

11. Roman Religion:
-adopted Greek religious beliefs and practices, but changed the names
-combined worship of Classical gods with homage to past Roman rulers and allegiance to living rulers; state religion
-as an official religion, it became increasingly unconnected with the lives of everyday people, therefore many conquered people continued to practice local religions like the emerging Christianity, and other traditional Egyptian and Near Eastern religions
-these religions flourished alongside the state religion, despite occasional efforts to subdue them

12. -society divided into 2 classes: patricians; wealthy/powerful
The Republic: BCE
-early Rome was governed by kings and an advisory board of leading citizens called the Senate
-society divided into 2 classes:
patricians; wealthy/powerful
plebeians; lower class
-509 BCE; Romans overthrow last Etruscan king and establish oligarchy: government of aristocrats; lasts ~450 years
Romans used Greek designs for art, Greek orders for architecture and imported Greek art and artists
Sculptors of republican period represented careful observations of their surroundings
Orator: shows man addressing a gathering; we know the name of the subject b/c it was inscribed on the hem of the garment; wears toga—characteristic of roman officials; might have originally been placed on top of a column as a memorial (common practice)
Artist: Roman Republic
Title: Aulus Metellus
Medium: Bronze
Size: height 5'11" (1.8 m)
Date: c. 80 BCE
Source/Museum: Found near Perugia. / Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Florence
Aulus Metellus; Bronze; height 5'11“; c. 80 BCE

13. verism: meticulous realism
Pompey a general and part of 3 man team (with Ceasar and Crassus) who ruled Rome from 60 to 53 BCE
Illustrates the realism demanded by Roman republican patrons; perfect hair does suggest some idealism
desire for accuracy in portraits may have derived from Roman ancestor worship and the practice of making death masks
Realism is typical of sculpture in this period
Artist: roman republic
Title: Portrait of Pompey the Great
Medium: Marble
Size: height 9 ¼" (24.8 cm)
Date: 30 CE. copy of sculpture of c. 50 BCE
Source/Museum: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen
Portrait of Pompey the Great; Marble; height 9 ¼“; 30 CE. copy of sculpture of c. 50 BCE

14. Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar; Silver; diameter ~ ¾“; 44 BCE
Propaganda:
-early Roman leaders recognized the value of putting their image with symbols of the Republic or important achievements
-art used to reinforce the ruler’s power is common in all Roman periods
propaganda: is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position, or person.
This coin issued by Julius ceasar in 44 BCE and widely circulated. Symbol of Rome (Venus—from the Aeneid myth that Romans are descended from her son Aeneus) on the reverse side
Title: Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar
Medium: Silver
Size: diameter approximately ¾" (1.9 cm)
Date: 44 BCE
Source/Museum: American Numismatic Society, New York
Denarius with Portrait of Julius Caesar; Silver; diameter ~ ¾“; 44 BCE

15. Roman Architecture and Engineering:
-adapted Greek Architectural orders
-added a base (pedestal) to the columns
-often un-fluted shaft on Doric style (Tuscan order)
-combined Ionic scrolls with Corinthian acanthus leaves (Composite order)
Greek orders
Column styles; adopted Greek versions and modified them (practice started by Etruscans)
Architects didn’t just build for the wealthy and public spaces; had to innovate to create infrastructure for the masses and homes for the middle/lower classes
Title: Elements of Architecture: Roman Architectural Orders
Source/Museum: Composite order and Tuscan order
Roman orders

16. -invented concrete in 1st century BCE
-Roman architects innovated heavily with the round arch (seen on Etruscan gate)
-invented concrete in 1st century BCE
Roman aqueduct; Pont Du Gard
Late 1st century BCE
This aqueduct in France carried water from springs 30 mi to the N using gravity to pull the water. Round arches are used functionally to span the distance and each buttresses the others for support, but fits naturally into the surrounding environment
3 levels rise 160 ft above the river;
base level has 20 ft wide road;
2nd level is narrower and set to one side of the road;
3rd level is 900 ft long, w/ 35 arches, each of which is 23 ft high
descends in height by only 56 ft over its entire length, indicative of the great precision that Roman engineers were able to achieve using only simple technology.
Invention of concrete meant semi-skilled workers w/ a few skilled supervisors (instead of highly skilled stone masons) could build buildings;
Freed architects from right-angle forms (that supported themselves) and relieved the limit of only being able to cover short spans
Water conduit floor is made with concrete
concrete structures were covered over with dressed stones (marble, etc) b/c concrete absorbed moisture (protection); unlike Greek architecture that showed what it was made of.
Artist: roman aqueduct
Title: Pont Du Gard
Date: Late 1st century BCE
Source/Museum: Nîmes, France

17. -influenced by Greek and Etruscan temples
Roman temples:
-influenced by Greek and Etruscan temples
-columns all the way around (Greek influence) but engaged after the front porch (Etruscan style)
Roman temples follow Greek and Etruscan examples; are technologically advanced, but conservative in design; not very creative
Columns around: Greek; but engaged after front porch and on a pediment (raised platform); Etruscan
Engaged columns: set into the wall
Maison Carree; earlier imperial temple (newer than top temple) is larger and more decorated (Corinthian order) than the older portunus temple
Title: Temple, perhaps dedicated to Portunus
Date: Late 2nd century BCE
Source/Museum: Forum Boarium (Cattle Market), Rome
Title: Maison Carrée
Date: c. 20 BCE
Source/Museum: Nîmes, France
Temple, perhaps dedicated to Portunus; Late 2nd century BCE; Rome
Maison Carrée; c. 20 BCE; Nîmes, France

18. -by 1st century BCE, nearly 1 million people lived in Rome
Early Empire: c 27 BCE – 96 CE
-by 1st century BCE, nearly 1 million people lived in Rome
-46 BCE, Julius Caesar gains autocratic power over Rome; assassinated 2 years later
-Caesar’s 19 year old adopted heir, Octavian assumes control; over next 17 years, Octavian establishes order in Roman provinces; beginning of Pax Romana; era of peace and stability in Rome that lasted over 200 years
-27 BCE; Octavian named Augustus (“exalted one”) by Roman senate
-12 CE; Augustus named Pontifex Maximus (“high priest”)
-Augustus becomes Rome’s highest religious official and political leader and rules for nearly 60 years
-Augustus established the Western ideal of Empires and imperial rule
1st cent BCE: by then, Rome had become a commercial and political center, but Romans still thought of themselves as farmers; love of natural world and simple life continued throughout the empire
Julius Caesar; autocratic ruler (defeated Pompey after death of Crassus); killed on March 15; ides of March (play; Julius Caesar; Shakespeare)
Octavian; Julius’ grand-nephew, adopted heir; rules and ends warring factions and brings peace to broken up provinces;
By 27 BCE; senate names his “Augustus”—exalted one
In 12 CE; gets title of Pontifex Maximus—high priest; became Rome’s highest religious official as well as it’s political leader
Assisted by wife; Livia; Augustus led Rome for nearly 60 years.
Empire: group of states or peoples under the control of one centralized ruling authority
System of law, governmental and administrative structures and it’s sophisticated civil engineering; necessary to rule such a large empire, are some of Rome’s most enduring contributions to Western civilization

19. Forums and basilicas: central administrative and legal centers
View of the Roman Forum
Imperial leaders undertook building projects of unprecedented scale and complexity;
Built forums, basilicas, recreational facilities (stadiums, race tracks), theatres, public baths, roads, bridges, middle class housing and aqueducts
Many modern highways in Europe follow paths of roman era roads; roman bridges are still in use; remnants of aqueducts need only repairs and connecting links to make them function again
Note scale of people—in red circle
Artist: Early empire
Title: View of the Roman Forum
Forums and basilicas: central administrative and legal centers

20. Early Imperial (Augustan) Art:
-new style; idealized but grounded in the appearance of the real world
Augustus of Primaporta; 1st cent CE;
6’ 8” high
Early imperial artists record contemporary historical events and idealize specific rulers for propaganda on arches, columns, and mausoleums
Primaporta: found in Livia’s (Augustus’ wife) villa, shows pose like the Orator with idealized pose and proportions of Polykleitos’ Spear Bearer (Greek); cupid, son of Venus (Aeneid) at his feet—connection to gods
Far removed from individualized portraits of republican period; creates vision of young, strong, benign ruler who is touched by the gods and governs with reason and persuasion (orator pose, rather than militaristic pose)
Artist: early empire
Title: Augustus of Primaporta
Medium: A copy with color restored
Source/Museum: Vatican Museum, Rome

21. Artist: Early empire
Commemorates Augustus’ triumphal return to Rome after establishing roman rule in Gaul (France) and Hispania (Spain)
Originally in a location called “plain of Mars” where it was aligned with a giant sundial suggesting that Augustus controlled time itself
Decoration is a union of portraiture and allegory, religion and politics, public and private Roman ideals
Title: Ara Pacis Augustae (altar of Augustan Peace), view of west side
Medium: Marble
Size: approx. 34'5" (10.5 m) X 38' (11.6 m)
Date: 13–9 BCE
Source/Museum: Rome
Ara Pacis Augustae (altar of Augustan Peace), view of west side; Marble; approx. 34'5" X 38‘; 13–9 BCE

22. Imperial Procession; height 5'2“; Detail of a relief on the south side of the Ara Pacis
-altar shows combination of the specific and the idealized; characteristic of Roman art
Decoration from Ara Pacis:
Imperial procession shows Augustus, priest and imperial family members; recognizable people at a known and specific event, unlike idealized Greek Parthenon frieze
Height of figures varied to suggest double line of walkers in space
Specific procession contrasts with idealized Allegory of Peace and War (opposite ends of the altar) peace, shown:
Goddess Pax (mother earth) seen nurturing the Roman people, shown as 2 babies
Included features from the natural world; rocks, flowers, trees, Roman contribution to monumental sculpture;
Idealized figures clearly drawn from Greek inspiration
Great skill and delicate detail characterized early imperial roman art
Title: Imperial Procession
Size: height 5'2" (1.6 m)
Source/Museum: Detail of a relief on the south side of the Ara Pacis
Title: Allegory of Peace
Source/Museum: Relief on the east side of the Ara Pacis
Allegory of Peace; height 5'2“; Relief on the east side of the Ara Pacis

23. Roman cities and homes:
-cities divided into quarters (like Etruscans)
-insulae: brick apartment blocks for housing
-women enjoyed a public life outside the home (unlike Greeks)
-know much about the city structures and homes from ruins at Pompeii
City’s public buildings located at the intersection of the main streets; center of the quarters
Despite urbanity, Romans liked nature and wanted to portray themselves as simple country folk; comfortable, nature loving, middle class lifestyle—LIKE US
Wealthy had elaborate gardens w/ pools, fountains, mosaics
Much housing; brick buildings called “insulae”
Pompeii: destroyed by Mt Vesuvius in 70 CE, so city and artifacts more or less preserved for later excavation: people lived in houses above or behind shops
Title: Aerial View of The City of Pompeii; Street in Pompeii
Date: 79 CE
Aerial View of The City of Pompeii; Street in Pompeii; 79 CE

24. Peristyle Garden, House of The Vettii; Pompeii
Roman houses featured small rooms around one or two open courts, like this; atrium
Romans softened the regularity of their homes with gardens; we know what they planted because of soil test and root excavations done at Pompeii
Vettii (peristyle garden, b/c of columns surrounding a porch) had more than dozen fountain statues jetting water into marble basins
Other gardens had mosaic decorations covering the floors, other mosaics covered backdrops of fountains; inset
Title: Peristyle Garden, House of The Vettii
Date: Rebuilt 62–79 CE
Source/Museum: Pompeii
Peristyle Garden, House of The Vettii; Pompeii
Wall Niche; Mosaic; 43¾ X 31½“; Mid-1st century CE; From a garden in Pompeii.

25. Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus (?) Wall painting
-interiors of Roman houses had plain, smooth plaster surface and were painted
-painting originally imitated marble, later portrayed shallow stage sets or natural scenes
Wall painting done with pigment in a solution of lime and soap, then polished with glass, metal or stone burnishes, then buffed w/ cloth
depict scenes on shallow stage-type sets or gardens to make the room feel bigger
House of mysteries; rites of cult religions were often performed in private homes and this room from the corner of a suburban villa might have been a shrine or meeting place for such a cult
Title: Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus (?)
Medium: Wall painting
Date: c. 60–50 BCE
Source/Museum: In the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii
Initiation Rites of the Cult of Bacchus (?)
Wall painting
c. 60–50 BCE;
In the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii

26. Example of garden scene from Livia’s dining room (Augustus’ wife)
Example of garden scene from Livia’s dining room (Augustus’ wife). Features shrubs and birds. Idealized view of the world
Title: Garden Scene
Medium: Detail of a wall painting
Date: Late 1st century BCE
Source/Museum: From the dining room of the Villa of Livia at Primaporta, near Rome. / Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome
Garden Scene
Detail of a wall painting From the dining room of the Villa of Livia at Primaporta, near Rome
Late 1st century BCE

27. Seascape and Coastal towns
Example of Roman ideal “lovely place”, extolled by Roman poets as a place where people lived in harmony with the land and a peaceful, easy life.
Shows atmospheric perspective to display real space; objects appear hazy in the distance
Title: Seascape and Coastal towns
Medium: Detail of a wall painting
Date: Late 1st century CE
Source/Museum: From Villa Farnesina, Rome
Seascape and Coastal towns
Detail of a wall painting From Villa Farnesina, Rome
Late 1st century CE
atmospheric perspective: objects appear hazy in the distance

28. intuitive perspective: uses diagonal lines (that the mind perceives as parallel) to show an object receding in space
shows intuitive perspective which uses diagonal line (that the mind perceives as parallel) to show an object receding in space, but not based on actual observation of how those lines relate to one another, so intuitive
orderly perspective of a single point of view is lacking
Title: Cityscape
Medium: Detail of a wall painting
Date: Late 1st century CE
Source/Museum: From a bedroom in the House of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale. / The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1903 (
Cityscape
Detail of a wall painting From a bedroom in the House of Publius Fannius Synistor
Late 1st century CE

29. Roman dynasties and rulers:
Early Empire:
-Augustus 27 BCE – 14 CE
Julio-Claudians: (named for Augustus’ lineage from Julius Caesar and Tiberius’ father, Tiberius Claudius Nero)
-Tiberus – 37 CE
-Caligula – 41 CE
-Claudius – 54 CE
-Nero 54 – 68 CE
Flavians: CE Military rulers who restored confidence after rule of Nero
High Empire: establish tradition of selecting successors until Marcus Aurelius’ son Commodus rules (likely insane)
-Nerva 96 – 98 CE
-Trajan 98 – 117 CE
-Hadrian – 138 CE
-Antoninus Pius 138 – 192 CE
-Marcus Aurelius 161 – 180 CE
-Commodus – 192 CE
Late Empire:
-Septimius Severus 193 – 211 CE
-Caracalla – 217 CE
-Alexander Severus 222 – 235 CE
-Diocletian – 305 CE; began Tetrachy (rule of 4): 293 – 305 CE
-Constantine I 312 – 337 CE; 1st Christian leader
-Death of last emperor in the West 476 CE
good leaders until Nero
led period of flourishing art and expansion

30. -Early Empire lasts from 27 BCE to 96 CE
-suicide of Nero in 68 CE ends Julio-Claudian dynasty (Augustus’ dynasty)
-brief period of civil war follows; ends when Vespasian of Flavian dynasty gains control
-Flavians rule from 69 – 96 CE (end of Early Empire)
-Flavians are military men who restore confidence in Roman government after Nero and built the Coliseum and Triumphal Arches
Nero killed himself b/c he was facing assassination

31. -triumphal arch is distinctive Roman structure;
-commemorates a specific triumph or formal victory celebration
-essentially a free standing gateway with a passage covered by a barrel vault
-originally served as a base for a statue of a 4-horse chariot and driver sculpture; typical triumphal symbol
formal victory celebration (when returning conquering paraded troops and booty through the streets upon his return from battle)
part architecture; part sculpture
commissioned by Domitian—brother of previous ruler Titus
Title: The Arch of Titus
Medium: Concrete and white marble
Size: height 50' (15 m)
Date: c. 81 CE (Restored 1822–24)
Source/Museum: Rome
The Arch of Titus
Concrete and white marble
height 50'
c. 81 CE (Restored 1822–24)
Rome

32. Reliefs from the Arch of Titus; c. 81 CE
Titus's capture of Jerusalem ended a fierce campaign to crush a revolt by Jews in Palestine; hence menorah shown in above relief
mood of the procession below is more active than procession on Ara Pacis (earlier)
nearer elements shown in higher relief than more distant elements
Title: Spoils from the Temple of Solomon, Jerusalem
Medium: Marble
Size: height 6'8" (2.03 m)
Date: n/a
Source/Museum: Relief in the passageway of the Arch of Titus
Title: Triumphal Procession, Titus In Chariot
Source/Museum: Relief in the passageway of the Arch of Titus.

33. Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) from the air; outer wall; 70–80 CE; Rome
Flavian rulers catered to Roman fanaticism for sports by building lg amphitheater; Coliseum; got its name for a large statue of Nero called the Colossus that originally stood nearby
design based on Greek hill-side theatre; put 2 together to create the free-standing theatre structure
measures 615 ft x 510 ft; floor 280 x 175 ft; outer wall 159 high;
held 50,000 spectators; 76 entrance doors; 3 levels of seats and standing room on top; giant awning on top could be pulled out to shade crowds
watched animal hunts; fights to death between gladiators or between gladiators and animals; animal performances and acrobats; even mock sea battles for which the floor was flooded.
opening ceremonies lasted 100 days, during which it is claimed 9000 wild animals and 2000 gladiators died for amusement
floor was laid over service tunnels and rooms; covered in sand (sand = arena in Latin—hence the name Arena meaning sporting place)
each of 3 levels uses different architectural order, from plain to fancy: plain Tuscan order on bottom; ionic on 2nd level; Corinthian on 3rd—all elements purely decorative, not structural (Etruscan influence)
much dismantled during middle ages as source of marble and metal for church building
Title: Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum) from the air; outer wall
Date: 70–80 CE
Source/Museum: Rome

34. High Empire: 96 – 192 CE
-last Flavian, Domitian was assassinated in 96 CE
-succeeded by Nerva (96 – 98 CE), who designated Trajan as his successor
-next 3 emperors select their successors, with great success and the empire is ruled by brilliant, capable administrators
-under Trajan (98 – 117 CE), empire reaches its greatest extent
-next, Hadrian (117 – 138) consolidates borders and imposes far-reaching social, governmental and military reforms
-second-to-last emperor, Marcus Aurelius, leaves son Commodus to rule and in 12 years he destroys the government his predecessors had built

35. -this image reflects Rome’s dense building plan
-building programs designed to exert the importance of Rome as center of the empire, begun under Julius Caesar and Augustus, are continued by Trajan and Hadrian
-this image reflects Rome’s dense building plan
-last and largest imperial Forum built by Trajan and finished by Hadrian (red circle) c. 117 CE
Title: Model of the Forum Romanum and Imperial Forums, Rome
Date: c. 325 CE
Model of the Forum Romanum and Imperial Forums, Rome
c. 325 CE

36. basilica = general purpose administrative building
-designed by Greek architect with rounded apse at each end; where judges held court when in session.
-design later appears in Christian churches
apse
basilica; 385 ft long (not counting apses) and 182 ft wide
Title: Plan of Trajan's Forum
Date: c. 110–113 CE
Plan of Trajan's Forum
c. 110–113 CE

37. reconstruction of the central hall of the Basilica Ulpia, c. 112 CE
Artist: Drawn by Gilbert Gorski.Trajan’s architect was Apollodorus of Damascus
Title: Restored perspective view of the central hall, Basilica Ulpia, Rome
Date: c. 112 CE
reconstruction of the central hall of the Basilica Ulpia, c. 112 CE

38. Column of Trajan; Marble; overall height with base 125' column alone 97'8“; relief 625‘ long
c. 117 CE; Rome
built by Hadrian to honor Trajan—placed just outside the Basilica Ulpia, near Temple of the Divine Trajan
shows the Dacian campaigns of , and CE;
Dacia (land to north of Macedon and Greece and east of Danube river)
Dacia put pressure on the Roman colony to west of Danube and
Trajan finally squashed the Dacians in his campaigns, extending Roman rule to its greatest extent
includes more that 2500 individual figures, linked by landscape, architecture and recurring figure of Trajan
band is approx 3 ft high on bottom and 4 ft high on top, to account for viewers low position
natural elements kept small to emphasize figures
shows sculptors have refined the art of pictorial narrative seen on Arch of Titus
excellent example of state propaganda, showing Trajan as strong, stable, efficient commander of a well-run army
column had been topped by a guilt bronze statue of Trajan, but in 1588 it was replaced with a statue of St. Peter by a pope
Title: Column of Trajan
Medium: Marble
Size: overall height with base 125' (38 m), column alone 97'8" (29.77 m) relief 625' (190.5 m) long
Date: 113–16 or after 117 CE
Source/Museum: Rome
Artist: n/a
Title: Romans Crossing The Danube and Building A Fort
Size: height of the spiral band approx. 36" (91 cm)
Source/Museum: Detail of the lowest part of the Column of Trajan

39. -maybe most impressive surviving example of ancient Rome
ancient street level
Pantheon
-maybe most impressive surviving example of ancient Rome
-name means “all the gods”—temple dedicated to Olympian gods
-originally stood on a podium approached by stairs, but street building has covered them
-built by Hadrian, but inscription dedicates it to Marcus Agrippa, an advisor to Augustus who originally built on this site—Hadrian’s nod to history
-holes on pediment indicate there used to be sculpture there, but we don’t know exactly what
Title: Pantheon
Date: c. 118–128 CE
Source/Museum: Rome
Pantheon
c. 118–128 CE; Rome

40. oculus: central opening coffers; sunken panels
Title: Reconstruction Drawing of the Pantheon
Source/Museum: Rome
-behind colonnaded front porch is a giant rotunda with 20’ thick walls, 75’ high, which support a dome 143’ in diameter and 143’ high at the top of the dome
-spherical building

41. 143’ high x 143’ in diameter
simple shape belies the sophisticated engineering it took to build this circular space
in 608 CE, Pope Boniface IV dedicated the Pantheon as a Christian church to St. Mary, thus ensuring it would survive the Middle Ages
Title: Circle section of the Pantheon
Source/Museum: Rome

42. -view inside the pantheon
-shows light from the oculus
-rain comes in and drains off as planned by original engineers
Title: Dome of the Pantheon with light from the oculus on its coffered ceiling
Medium: Brick, concrete, marble, veneer
Size: diameter of dome 143' (43.5 m)
Date: 125–128 CE
Source/Museum: Rome

43. Hadrian’s Wall; 2nd century CE; Great Britain.
In High Empire, Rome reaches its greatest extent
Hadrian’s wall marked far northern edge of Roman empire—barrier to Scots in the North; part of Hadrian’s legacy mentioned earlier
Title: Hadrian’s Wall
Date: 2nd century CE
Source/Museum: Great Britain. View from near Housesteads, England
Hadrian’s Wall; 2nd century CE; Great Britain.

44. -mosaic work shows great artistry during the High Empire
The Unswept Floor; Mosaic variant of a 2nd-century BCE painting by Sosos of Pergamon; 2nd century CE
example of a mosaic designed to fit the purpose of the room—from a dining room floor; scraps show the wealth of the family because of the fancy food depicted, including lobster
highly detailed, even included shadows of the objects
most floors consisted of a central design: emblamata—that was constructed in the artist’s workshop and dropped into an otherwise geometric pattern on the rest of the floor
Artist: Herakleitos
Title: The Unswept Floor
Medium: Mosaic variant of a 2nd-century BCE painting by Sosos of Pergamon
Size: n/a
Date: 2nd century CE
Source/Museum: Musei Vaticani, Museo Gregoriano Profano, Rome
-mosaic work shows great artistry during the High Empire
-most floor mosaics designed to fit the purpose of the room
emblemata

45. Commodus as Hercules; Marble; height 46 ½" c. 191–92 CE
High Empire Imperial portraiture: typical roman idealism for propaganda with some specific details
Equestrian:
bronze sculpture survived b/c it was thought to be Constantine; 1st Christian ruler
shows ruler Marcus Aurelius address a crowd (like the Orator)—ruling his people through rational, effortless rule, not militaristic might
(because wears no armor and carries no weapons—rules easily)
became a model for later artists depicting important figures on horses—how to showcase the smaller rider on the horse, not over shadowed by horse
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Commodus:
Commodus, in contrast to his father, Marcus Aurelius; was decadent and frivolous and probably insane.
Claimed at various times to the reincarnation of both Hercules and Jupiter; his associates (including his mistress) had him strangled
Trained as a gladiator and participate in fake battles—embarrassing
still, he commissioned some beautiful portraiture, like this one showing him as Hercules—pose shows his foolishness as a leader
Title: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
Medium: Bronze, originally gilded
Size: height of statue 11'6" (3.5 m)
Date: c. 176 CE
Source/Museum: Museo Capitolino, Rome
Title: Commodus as Hercules
Medium: Marble
Size: height 46 ½" (118 cm)
Date: c. 191–92 CE
Source/Museum: Esquiline Hill, Rome / Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome
Commodus as Hercules; Marble;
height 46 ½" c. 191–92 CE
Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius; Bronze, originally gilded; height 11'6“; c. 176 CE

46. Late Empire: 200 – 400 CE
-reign of Commodus (180 – 192 CE) left Rome in political and economic decline
-barbarian groups put pressure on Roman borders and imperial rule became increasingly authoritarian
-Severan emperors succeeded Commodus (192 – 235 CE)
-arts continue to flourish under the Severans, despite political turmoil
-after Severans, more than 2 dozen so-called “soldier emperors” try to rule Rome for the next 70 years
-Diocletian follows soldier-rulers in 284 CE; establishes tetrachy (rule by 4)
-empire divides in 395 CE

47. Caracalla; Marble; height 14 ½“; Early 3rd century CE
Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, and Their Children, Geta and Caracalla; Painted wood; diameter 14“; c. 200 CE
Severan dynasty: 1st ruler; Septimus Severus; father, born in Africa, married to Syrian wife
Children; sons Geta and Caracalla
Sons established as co-emperors after the death of their father, but one year in, Caracalla has Geta murdered so he can rule alone:
rules until he is murdered in 217 CE
Geta’s face scratched out of all images after his death—gone from this one
painted portrait in the formal style of Fayum area of Egypt (like the portrait on the mummy we saw in the Egypt section)
bust of Caracalla shows marked difference from benign image of Marcus Aurelius from previous dynasty—he looks imposing and cruel
Title: Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, and Their Children, Geta and Caracalla
Medium: Painted wood
Size: diameter 14" (35.6 cm)
Date: c. 200 CE
Source/Museum: Fayum, Egypt / Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung
Title: Caracalla
Medium: Marble
Size: height 14 ½" (36.2 cm)
Date: Early 3rd century CE
Caracalla; Marble; height 14 ½“; Early 3rd century CE

48. -baths were recreational and educational centers
-entire complex covered 50 acres, and included gardens, a stadium, libraries, a painting gallery, auditoriums, and huge water reservoirs
Baths of Caracalla; Plan of The Baths of Caracalla, Rome; c. 211–17 CE
Caracalla finished a popular public works project begun by his father—for public bath house on SE side of Rome
laid out in strictly symmetrical plan; basis for designs of numerous American train stations
Title: Baths of Caracalla; Plan of The Baths of Caracalla, Rome
Date: c. 211–17 CE
Source/Museum: Rome

49. the Baths of Diocletian were converted into a church by Michelangelo; thus preserving it;
Title: Church of Santa Maria Degli Angeli (Baths of Diocletian)
Date: c. 298–306 CE. Converted into a church by Michelangelo in 1563
Baths of Diocletian; c. 298–306 CE. Converted into a church by Michelangelo in 1563
-good example of what the interior of the Baths of Caracalla would have looked like

50. -continue to favor the portrait style of Caracalla
Soldier Emperors:
-more than 2 dozen military men who tried to rule for the 70 years following the Severan emperors
-continue to favor the portrait style of Caracalla
Artist: Late empire
this bust seems less menacing; more concerned than Caracalla's—suggesting unease over the deceitful ways these rulers gained control
Phillip murdered his predecessor, and was murdered himself 5 yrs later
Title: Philip The Arab
Medium: Marble
Size: height 26" (71.1 cm)
Date: Ruled 244–49 CE
Source/Museum: Musei Vaticani, Braccio Nuovo, Rome
Philip The Arab; Marble; height 26“; Ruled 244–49 CE

51. Marble; height approx. 5“; c. 250 CE
Battle Between The Romans and The Barbarians, detail of the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus
Marble; height approx. 5“; c. 250 CE
though portraits and narrative reliefs (on monuments) were the major forms of public sculpture during the Late Empire, a shift from cremation to burial led to the creation of funerary art and decorated sarcophagi
this sarcophagus shows drama similar to Greek Hellenistic Pergamon sculptural frieze
no attempt shown to create a realistic environment, unlike earlier Roman sculpture such as the arch of Titus
Title: Battle Between The Romans and The Barbarians, detail of the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus
Medium: Marble
Size: height approx. 5" (1.52 m)
Date: c. 250 CE
Source/Museum: Found near Rome / Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome

52. -appointed a second Augustus, Maximian, to rule the west
Tetrarchy:
-soldier-emperor rule ended with the rise of Diocletian (brilliant politician and general) in 284 CE
-Diocletian divided the empire in 2; he adopted the name of Augustus and ruled the eastern part
-appointed a second Augustus, Maximian, to rule the west
-each Augustus named a Caesar; subordinate and heir
-these 4 rulers were the tetrarchy, “rule of four”
portrait of the tetrachs documents a turn toward abstraction in Roman art (though hardness of the material may have contributed to that);
the 4 men are nearly identical with beards probably indicating the senior Augusti
embrace each other in a show of imperial unity
demonstrates increasing focus on getting the point across as quickly and efficiently as possible; emphasis on the message and disregard for naturalism and proportion
as a work of propaganda and a summary of the current state of affairs, it is unsurpassed
shift to abstraction occurs more and more near end of 200s
Title: The Tetrarchs
Medium: Porphyry
Size: height of figures 51" (129 cm)
Date: c. 300 CE
Source/Museum: Brought from Constantinople in 1204, installed at the corner of the façade of the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice
The Tetrarchs; Porphyry; height of figures 51“; c. 300 CE
Brought from Constantinople in 1204, installed at the corner of the façade of the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice

53. -Constantine I eventually prevailed as ruler
-in 305 CE, Diocletian gave up his rule and forced the other Augustus to do the same; the succession of Caesars failed and a power struggle ensued
-Constantine I eventually prevailed as ruler
-won a battle against rival Maxentius (Maximian’s son) to gain control
-attributed his win to a vision he had the night before that showed a Christian cross
-showed his gratitude by ending persecution of Christians and establishing a law of religious tolerance in Rome; Edict of Milan
-Edict of Milan becomes a model of religious tolerance
-c. 330 CE, Constantine renames port-city of Byzantium Constantinople and makes it the capitol of the empire
-following this, Rome further declines in importance
Constantine commissioned a 30 ft statue of himself for his new basilica—this statue became a stand in for the emperor when his presence was required for official business;
head combines features of traditional roman portraiture with abstract qualities we started to see in the tetrachs
Title: Constantine The Great
Medium: Marble
Size: height of head 8'6" (2.6 m)
Date: 325–26 CE
Source/Museum: Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, Rome / Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome
Constantine The Great; Marble; height of head 8'6“; 325–26 CE

54. Constantine was baptized on his deathbed in 337 CE
by 400 CE, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman empire; non-Christians became the target of persecution
but Classical beliefs continued, as shown by these 2 pieces from the late 300s
Dish depicts Bacchus in the center and revelers around him
Ivory piece shows a priestess of Bacchus at an altar; rendering of the drapery recalls the reliefs on the Ara Pacis
appreciation for Classical themes and ideas continues throughout the transition away from Roman authority to local rule
Title: Dish
Medium: Silver
Size: diameter approx. 24" (61 cm)
Date: Mid-4th century CE
Source/Museum: Mildenhall, England / The British Museum, London
Title: Priestess of Bacchus (?), right panel of the Diptych of Symmachus
Medium: Ivory
Size: 11¾ X 4¾" (29.9 X 12 cm)
Date: c. 390–401 CE
Dish; Silver; diameter approx. 24“; Mid-4th century CE; Mildenhall, England
Priestess of Bacchus (?), right panel of the Diptych of Symmachus; Ivory; 11¾ X 4¾“; c. 390–401 CE

55. Can you dig it?