1. Mexican Revolution
An overview review for my favorite history students borrowed from Mr. Millhouse at Hebron High School but adapted and made better because he left too much out.

2. To what extent was Porfirio Diaz an effective leader for Mexico?
Debate.

3. Causes of the Mexican Revolution Who is Porfirio Diaz? Positivism
Prior to the Porfiriato, Mexico had no modern industry… Modernized Mexico by developing new industries including smelting iron and completed the national railroad. Opened the oil industry to American and British investors.
Modernized the army and improved the banditry issue.
Hired a British firm to redesign the urban sewage systems which increased health
Refilled the national treasury and settled Mexico’s debts reformed the tax code to collect and utilize taxes more efficiently.
Farms were refocused to mono-crop economies and most of the crops were exported for profit.
Developed urban culture centers like the National Theater in Mexico City (promoted European theater and arts)
Porfirio Díaz ( )
Ruled as a dictator after seizing control of the government when he lost an election in 1876.
New Creoles”– Ruling elite

4. Problems with Porfiriato
Extreme poverty (wealth disparity) Working class wages declined 20% while COLA increased 80%
Diet for the average person was corn and chile– no meat.
Life expectancy was to age 30 compared to age 50 in U.S. and other developed countries. Infant mortality averaged 30%
Land concentrated into 2% of the private population and peonage debt system developed (wages only spendable at “company stores” (tienda de raya) – laborer becomes indebted to the hacienda and cannot leave)
No judicial protection from the hacienda
Cultural adaptations favored European culture (specifically French), style, and attitudes. Bull fighting= baseball
Did not support Mexican derived art or cultural ideology. Suppressed Mexican forms of literary and artistic expression

5. And more problems
Allowed political elections in 1880 by supporting a Porfiriato puppet. Ran for president again in 1884 and didn’t bother with future elections.
Political favors and high level corruption; established jefes or political bosses to administer areas of Mexico (often wealthy families– hacendado system –Terrazas-Creel clan)
Government seized significant tracts of farm land and church lands and sold it to “favorites”
Cientificos promoted “social darwinist” ideology towards the indigineous population– extreme racism.
Rigid press censorship and suppression of speech
European and American investments: made Mexico dependent on foreign markets

6. Liberal Plan of 1906 Objectives: Education: rural
Labor: child labor, safety standards, and fair wages.
Land: ejidos and peasants- break hacendados and legal protections
Legal: rehabilitation, free speech,
National sovereignty and ownership of national resources.
Orozco, Arriaga, Madero, and Flores Magon Brothers
Fought for freedom of press and the ability to publish their newspaper Regeneracion.
Arrested for political dissidence on several occassions.
Fled to the United States; first settled in Texas; but moved to St. Louis, MS after a Porfiriato assassin got too close
Established a center for radical activities.

7. Power to the people: Strikes 1905-1907 (talk to me)
Cananea Consolidated Copper Company (Sonora)
Inspired and encouraged by the Regeneracion.
U.S. owned company.
Turned violent; Colonel Greene called in U.S. for help: Arizona Rangers crossed border
People on both sides were killed
Mexican sovereignty was violated by US military.
Sparked more revolts and protests throughout Mexico.
Textile industry (VC)
Strikers were unarmed.
Tienda de Rayas
Diaz arbitration
Media suppression
U.S. appeals denied

8. Diaz decides to hold an election
During the National Convention in 1910, Secretary Limantour nomimated Diaz and Corral (VP) as the candidates (even though there were other Porfirista supporters vying for the position)
Reyes was logical successor of Diaz as his military general and war hero (Reyistas)
Diaz accepted (and sent his competition [Reyes] away on a “military mission” to Europe)
(Reyes never intended to challenge Diaz so why the mission?)
“No matter what my friends and supporters say, I retire when my presidential term ends, and I shall not serve again. I shall be eighty years old then. I have waited patiently for the day when the people of the Mexican Republic should be prepared to choose and change their government… I believe that day has come. I welcome an opposition party in the Mexican Republic.”
James Creelman interview,
Pearson Magazine, 1908

9. Anti-Reelection movement
Madero was a criollo; well educated, from a family of wealth and prestige.
When revolutionary activity began as early as 1901, Madero helped fund a liberal revolutionary newspaper
Mining, cattle, land, banking
Madero was “Europeanized” and a “modern liberal”;
He heard about the complaints on haciendas and worked to create fair conditions within his haciendas (only slightly more successful or generous than his peers)
Had run for political positions, but always lost to Diaz appointees.
Madero believed that nothing could changes until democratic processes created a new climate in Mexico.

10. Challenges to Diaz: What did Madero believe?
“The Mexican people did not want bread; they wanted liberty”
-Madero
(during a political rally when asked why he would not break up his haciendas)
Single-term presidency should be focused on next generation (not next election)
Problems of Mexico would solve themselves through the democratic process
Free and honest elections

11. Objective of the Mexican Revolution in 1910: Political Reform Start of the Revolution was primarily political in focus based on the lack of political elections and open democratic opportunities. Start of the Revolution was primarily political in focus
Election of 1910 (21 June 1910)
Madero had been arrested for abetting a fugitive from justice (during a political rally)
With Madero in jail, Diaz won by a significant majority
Made bail and put on house arrest, He fled and made his way to San Antonio, Texas where he rallied with other revolutionaries.
Madero called for Díaz to be overthrown (Plan de San Luis Potosi)
Francisco Madero ( )

12. The Plan de San Luis Potosi
“People in their constant efforts for the triumph of the ideals of liberty and justice, find it necessary at certain historical moments to make the greatest sacrifices. Our beloved fatherland has reached one of those moments. A tyranny that we Mexicans have not been accustomed to suffer since we won our independence oppresses us in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but it is a peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because it is based not on law but on force; because its goal is not the enrichment and prosperity of the country, but the enrichment of a small group.”

13. First Phase Political Reform (Madero): Plan de San Luis Potosi
Issued on 5 October 1910
Declared the presidency and all leadership of Mexico unconstitutional
Argued the Constitution is the supreme law of the land
Declared himself the lawful President of Mexico based on the election of 1910
Demanded that all revolutionaries rise up and fight on 20 November 1910
Threatened to shoot anyone who supported Diaz. (talk to me)
Diaz is forced to resign on 25 May 1911.

14. Revolution begins
November 19- Madero crossed into Mexico but no one seemed organized so he crossed back into the U.S.
However, insurrection started throughout Mexico forcing Diaz to spread his military in counter-attacks– November 20-21, 1910
Most successful fighting in Sonora and Chihuahua under the leadership of Orozco and Villa
Madero finally joined the revolution in February 1911.
Orozco tries to honor Madero as the revolutionary leader, but Madero is a terrible strategists… clearly a politician
Why would this be a problem?

15. Battle of Ciudad Juarez: April 2-May 10
Orozco and Villa recommend that the revolutionaries take control of Ciudad Juarez–
border city across the Rio Grande from El Paso, Texas
(would give easy access to resources, the river for travel, and an escape route)
Initially, Madero agrees to the plan but at the last minute he changes his mind because he feared the U.S. might believe they were attacking U.S. soil.
Orozco attacks anyway…

16. Ciudad Juarez = rebel victory
Madero angry that Orozco defied him so when he appointed his provisional cabinet, he did not appoint Orozco or Villa a position.
The absence was noted.
Battle of Ciudad benefits
Battle of Ciudad negatives 1. 2. 3.

17. Treaty of Ciudad Juarez: May 21, 1911
Diaz and his presidency is over. Formal resignation May 25, 1911
Francisco Leon de la Barra (secretary of foreign relations) would be interim president until the next election (not Madero) with a porfirista cabinet…
No reforms were stipulated.

18. Interim Presidential Election
Francisco Madero
Resumes his anti-Diaz message…
Wins election because there is no opposition… but Madero has made enemies.
Bernard Reyes
Returns from European mission
Becomes the Porfirista candidate
Madero’s supporters attacked Reyes at a rally
Reyes freaked out and backed out of the election and moved to San Antonio

19. Mexican Revolutionaries (1910)
Pancho Villa
Francisco Madero

20. The Revolution Spreads: Madero out
Lack of land and labor reforms led to open rebellion.
Madero failed to make any significant changes to support the demands of the revolution.
Emiliano Zapata
“Land and Liberty”
Pancho Villa
Orozco is angry about his isolation and lack of inclusion after Madero has power.
Carranza and members of Madero’s cabinet are disillusioned
In total FIVE different revolutionary movements for various causes throughout Mexico
Plan de Ayala
Immediate and sweeping land reforms returning land to the peasants
Plan Orozquista
Immediate sweeping social and labor reforms

21. Decena Tragica: counter revolution (the 5th rebellion?)
Appealed to the traditional order
Support from the disciplined military
Only officers in Veracruz responded.
Diaz arrested for treason and sentenced to death.
Madero chose to appeal the death sentence. Why?
Felix Diaz: Nephew to Porfirio Diaz
(Felicista movement)
Diaz plotted with Reyes (who was also in prison) for a second coup.
Military cadets were used in the battle that lasted 10 days.
Huerta was in charge of Madero’s army defending.
Bernardo Reyes died on the first day of battle.
February 9, 1913: General Manuel Mondragon released the prisoners and helped lead a march on the National Palace
Civilian casualties ( deaths)

22. Results: Pact of the Embassy
Disgusted by Madero’s indifference and mismanagement, Huerta switched sides and halted the defense of the Palace.
Huerta arrested Madero and his cabinet.
The final negotiations were handled by the U.S. (hmmm).
Huerta’s coup was supported by Henry Lane Wilson– American Ambassador (Dollar Diplomacy)
H.L. Wilson hated Madero and meddled shamelessly against him.
Madero was eventually assassinated under the fake stories that Madero had tried to escape.
General consensus: made up story but no one knows the truth or who ordered the assassination.

23. How did Huerta end up in power legally? I love this story:
Huerta demanded official resignations from Madero and Suarez
Called a special session of Congress. Congress officially accepted the resignations (only 5 dissenting votes)
10:24 PM: Lascurain-- Secretary of Foreign Relations (next in line) was sworn in as President.
Lascurain appoints Genera Huerta as Secretary of Interior.
10:36: President Lasurain resigns.
According to the Constitution of 1857, in the absence of a President, Vice President, and Secretary of Foreign Relations, the Secretary of Interior shall assume the powers of the Presidency.
Therefore, Huerta was sworn in as President just before midnight (he was already wearing a black tuxedo after all.)

24. Who is Huerta? Could he have been a reformer?
This is a counter revolution against Madero so other revolutionaries did not intervene at first …
This is a return to a tyranny… Huerta had no intention of honoring democratic reforms and it escalated as the war turned against him.
Like Juarez, Huerta was a native Indian who came from a small Jalisco village and attended the military academy on merit during the Porfiriato where he was charged with “enforcing peace”
Huerta could not afford to pay the growing army and eventually collapses
Huerta was forced to militarize Mexico in response to the Revolutionary movements throughout Mexico: (bad idea)
Leva, conscription
retooling factories
Moving army units were underequipped and would deplete food and supplies in each city.
Reactionary to loss of battles against revolutionary groups
Enacted censorship, secret police
Political assassinations
Arrogance: demanded loyalty and submission by revolutionaries.
Zapata refused to submit and arrested the “federal peace commissioners”
Huerta resigned after losing the Battle of Zacatecas
8 July 1914
18 months in power

25. Maybe a little progressive
Maybe a little progressive? Huerta did enact educational reforms and land reform:
Focused on indigenismo; improving the quality of life for natives
Secretary of Interior under Huerta- Aureliano Urrutia was a full blooded Indian and Huerta allowed him to work on village reform
Agrarian reform: free seed distribution and authorized the restoration of 78 ejidos.
Created a cabinet position to study land redistribution and propose constitutional changes.
Opened 131 new schools for 10,000 students
Raised teachers pay and liberalized the curriculum
Promoted national military schools (think Napoleon)
Increased educational budget to 9.9% (Madero 7.8% and Diaz highest 7.2)
Attempted minor labor and church reform (lacks significance)

26. Essential Questions
Examine the objectives of the Mexican Revolution of 1910.
To what extent are the objectives of the Revolution satisfied by 1920?
Compare and contrast the objectives of revolutionary factions of
To what extent was factionalism an obstacle to the advancement of the Revolution?
Analyze whether each key player in the Revolution was a revolutionary or a reformer.

27. Resistence Coalition: plan de Guadalupe
Carranza: Coahuila
First chief of the “Constitutional Army”
Similar to Madero: political plan only
Pancho Villa: Chihuahua
Aligned to Carranza’s plan
Zapata: did not support Madero, Huerta or Carranza because neither group offered reforms.
Zapata still helped by diverting resources
Obregon: Sonora
Signed Carranza’s plan with reservations

28. What were the demands of Orozco?
Social and political reform:
Liberal Plan of 1906:
10 hour work day
Restrictions for child labor
Improved working conditions with safety measures
Higher wages
Suppression of the tienda de raya
Nationalization of resources including the railroad
Redistribution of land to anyone living on land for 20 years (title)
Any lands illegally seized from peasantry were returned to the ejido
Government land and fallow hacienda lands were to be redistributed

29. Fighting in the South (Zapatistas) Plan de Ayala
Wanted to be free from government tyranny
Wanted agrarian land reform and the land to be redistributed and given directly to the farmers (ejidos) including “illegally seized lands”. The burden of proof for ownership would be on the Hacienda and usurpers
Demanded 1/3 of church land and hacienda land given to the villages.
Wanted better living conditions for indigenous Indians.
Wanted improved educational opportunities.

30. U.S. and foreign policies
Huerta lost U.S. support when he failed to stabilize the country.
Woodrow Wilson would not acknowledge Huerta because he was “anti-democratic” under his “Moral Diplomacy” (after all what is Woodrow Wilson’s policy now?)
Wilson felt Huerta was a bully and arrogant.
Huerta called Wilson the “Puritan” and thought he was equally arrogant.
They are both right…
The Confrontation in Veracruz over rumors Germans were bringing in weapons (Tampico Affair)

31. What was the Tampico Affair? Spring 1914 (April)
The U.S. parked a navy vessel USS Dophin off the coast of Mexico
A small landing party was ordered to get gas
Sailors wandered into restricted area and were arrested (paraded through the streets under arrest to the prison… publicly humiliated)
An hour later, Mexico sent an official policy and released the sailors (no harm no foul)?
American admiral said he wanted more apology and demanded Mexico fly the American flag over Tampico port and offer a 21 gun salute (highest acknowledgement)
President Woodrow Wilson thinks this is a great solution
Mexico first said no. US threatens military action.
(Huerta) said sure if America returns the salute.
Wilson realizes if he agrees, he is acknowledging the Huerta regime. Wilson says no.
Stalemate

32. Break the stalemate; the Germans are coming?
U.S. consul sends Wilson a message saying a German ship is scheduled to arrive on 21 April with a large shipment of arms.
Wilson demands a full naval occupation of Veracruz and seizes custom houses
People die in the hundreds (many civilian)
Riots break out and anti-American sentiment is out of control
Everyone condemns U.S. (Pigs of Yanquilandia)
Constitutionalists condemn Huerta too.
Huerta forced to resign and blames U.S.
Some say this would lead to the Zimmerman Note in April German’s say Mexico should develop their own relationship and not be U.S. puppets… Yikes

33. Third Phase: The Constitution and Carranza
Military Convention of Aguascalientes October 1914 met to try to reform the Mexican Constitution and stabilize leadership
What’s up with flags? The Flag of the Convention was signed by participants as a symbol of support for the new order… until Zapata’s representatives arrived.
Revolution split between the Zapatistas and Villistas (reformers)
and Carrancistas and Obregonistas (Constitutionalists)

34. Results of Aguascalientes
Eulalio Gutierrez chosen as provisional president of Mexico.
Carranza stormed out of the convention in protest.
Established a Constitutional government in Veracruz (where did the US go? Hmmm).
The division of the Constutitionalists led some to support the Revolutionary movement.
Meeting of Xochimilco

35. Will the real revolutionaries please stand up
Will the real revolutionaries please stand up? This is the problem for sure
The Centaur of the North Villistas
Attila of the South Zapatas
1915 is noted as the year beginning uncontrolled chaos, excessive violence, and increasing death of both military and Civilian populations.
Emergence of warlords in smaller regions seized control of various areas in self-interest

36. Is the Mexican Revolution also a Civil War
Is the Mexican Revolution also a Civil War? Three Mexican Factions with Five Presidents
Gutierrez (considered the “legit” government) controls Mexico City calls themselves Conventionalists
Carranza appealed to masses from Veracruz with support from Obregon called Constitutionalists
Mexican Constitution of 1917
Villa becomes governor of Chihuahua and claims he is President of Mexico
Zapatatistas supports Roque Gonzalez Garza (who?)

37. Battle of Ceyala
April 1915
Villa attacked with 25,000 men.
Villa lost men
Obregon (leading Carranza’s men) lost 500
Obregon used new military tactics being used in European war (barbed wire and artillery barrage)
Villa is becoming very weak and distracted because of US
President Wilson (USA) supported Constitutionalists and withdrew from Veracruz

38. US Intervention
Villa began to harass US-- killing American citizens.
General Pershing goes after Villa: $130mil. Spent on capture efforts
Carranza protests US action on Mexican soil and in 1917 Pershing is forced with withdraw. Never captured Villa
Santa Isabel: Villa kills 15 American engineers sent to reopen a mine in Mexico.
Columbus, NM: Villa attacks small American town; killed 18, and destroyed town raider style

39. Constitutional Convention 1917: Queretaro Congress
Carranza calls on Mexico City to consolidate power and hold the convention ---
quickly realizes the Constitutionalists are unfocused and divided
No reformers were invited
New Elite: 70% of the Convention are non-military.
½ the Delegation are educated– university level with professorial degrees
Young, middle class, politically ambitious
Leader Francisco Mugica
Many considered radical liberals and wanted total overhaul of society. (nicknamed Jacobins by their enemies… reference?)

40. Carranza the Moderate: Repeat of the Constitution of 1857– not enough– liberals demand more reform and win!
5 anti-clerical amendments
3, 5, 24, 27, 130
No legal status or protection of religious organizations
Priests classified as “ordinary citizens”
States could limit number of priests
Priests had to be native born
Marriage declared civil ceremony
No public worship outside of church and church grounds
No religious political parties
All religious developments must be approved by the government
Church accused of blocking social progress

41. Anti-clerical amendments
All promoted the federal government authority over the authority of the Church.
Article 130 determined that members of the clerical order were not citizens of Mexico because their loyalty was to the Pope.
This would have far reaching concerns for the clerical population.
Caused concern from the Vatican Pope Pius XI denounced the Constitution creating a crisis for Mexican citizens

42. Article 3: very controversial
Primary education should be free and obligatory.
Education must be secular.
Available to all citizens
Supported 2:1
What’s the concern?
Can you really limit Catholic schools and access to this form of education?
Who will pay for it if the Church’s aren’t in charge? How?

43. Article 3: Education reform
Compromised with the Church to help build educational opportunities but was anti-clerical in terms of social control
Vasconcelos made the Secretary of Education and worked to improve schools.
Commissioned Diego Rivera and other writers and artists to develop nationalism and Mexican pride and educational reforms.
Education for children and adults to improve literacy and citizenship

44. Carranza: --anti-Huerta--
Is Carranza a “counter-revolution?”
Despite Vasconcelos, Carranza does not have a supportive educational record:
Carranza reduced teacher salaries
Closed rural schools
Only dedicated 0.09% of the federal budget to education (Huerta was 9.9, Madero 7.8)
Social programs dropped from 11.6% to 1.9%
Argument: waste of necessary federal monies and it was Huerta’s greatest achievement…

45. Article 27: the Zapata amendment? Land Reform
Subsoil rights.
Only Mexicans by birth or naturalization can own land (unless given government permission and promise to follow government law.)
Nationalized oil? Kinda…
The Bucareli agreement worked with U.S. oil refineries to allow foreign ownership as long as “positive acts were conducted” to improve conditions in Mexico, taxes were paid and labor laws were honored.
Nationalized Mexican land and protected private property ownership from expropriation

46. But did it work? Land must be used for the good of public interest
Broke the large hacendado system
Redistributed land to the farmers and land laborers (in order to keep peace with larger land owners,
Also confiscated Church land which will be controversial as it attacks Church power and authority

47. Laid basis for land reform
Constitution of 1917 and Carranza’s legitimate presidency marked the end of the Mexican Revolution. To what extent do you agree?
Laid basis for land reform
450,000 acres of land redistributed (700 sq mi)
(Stockton is 40,000 acres or 62 sq mi, Sacramento is 100 sq mi, Los Angeles is 503 sq. mi): San Joaquin Count is acres or 1400 sq mi. California is 164,000 sq. mi (104 million acres)…
One Terraza family member owned 7 million acres
No major redistribution until 1934

48. Carranza shuts down Zapatistas
Carranza sends federal troops to Zapatista towns creating violent battles and total destruction of the region
Can’t find Zapata directly so schemes
Colonel Guajardo sends message to Zapata saying he wants to mutiny support Zapatista movement.
Zapata suspects trap and demands release of Zapatistas... Guajardo complies and seizes Jonacatepec.
Zapata cautiously agrees to meet
April 10, 1919 Hacienda de Chinameca
When Zapata rode into the courtyard, Colonel greeted him and a bugle sounded…
Soldiers shot Zapata at point blank range.
Considered the ultimate betrayal of the country. We will come back to this

49. Article 123: Labor reform
Established an 8 hour work day with overtime options
Outlawed child labor and improved work conditions for workers over 14 and for women including maternity protection
Established equal pay between men and women (very liberal)
Established a 6 day work week
Established a minimum wage paid in a national currency without restrictions
Improved work conditions and safety regulations
Allowed for union development and the ability to strike
Union CROM (Regional Confederation of Mexican workers) to protect labor conditions and continue to improve labor situation

50. Labor Reform: Orozco and Villa win the day? NOPE.
New labor laws
Carranza was anti-union and worked against union organization in 1915.
After the passage of Article 123: Carranza simply did not enforce the law and referred all issues to the federal courts (which weren’t fully organized yet).
Despite his lack of support: CROM will develop. “Confederacion Regional Obrera Mexicana” first major nationwide union.
No major enforcement of labor laws until 1931

51. What happened to Carranza? The Plan de Agua Prieta: The Obregonistas
The assassinations (including Zapata’s) and the lack of implementation of the Constitution caused many supporters to denounce Carranza
1920 election (no re-election rule) Carranza was not eligible to run and tried to name his successor. Some “no name” civilian (Ignacio Bonillas).
Obregon accused Carranza of rigging the elections and felt he should have received Carranza’s support based on his loyalty and alignment.
Created an alliance with northern generals: a different guy named Huerta and another guy named Calles (we need Calles’ name).
Marched on Mexico City; Carranza tried to flee the capital to exile.
Assassinated by one of his own guards who is a suspected supporter of the Obregonistas

52. What happened to Pancho Villa
Tried to resist Carranza until 1920 but was very ineffective after Ceyala
He is offered a large hacienda (25,000 acres) in Chihuahua and retired. (Interim President Huerta brokered the deal)
Created a military compound for his soldiers to have a haven to also retire.
Villa militia was given 500,000 pesos to maintain the compound (by the govt)
Is Villa a sell out?
He was assassinated in NO one knows who ordered the hit, but Obregon is suspected.

53. Aftermath of Revolution Military Phase 1910-1920 Both sides guilty
Over one million people died (somewhere between mil total but accurate records were not kept in the rural regions).
1/8 of total population: Every family lost someone.
Most deaths were after battle from wounds and illnesses and lack of medical care and training.
Deaths included combatants, executed political prisoners and civilians caught in the insurrections
Violent and brutal behaviors during the revolution: mutilated bodies and lynchings were common undermining the idealism of the revolution.
Refugees flee Mexican violence: Oct 1913: crossed the border in Texas

54. Farming, ranching, and mining economies were destroyed by fighting and loss of laborers
Oil industry improved during revolution (WWI and Foreign ownership <US>?)
No major bank or newspaper survived
Large cities demolished and reversed whatever infrastructure had been developed during the Porfiriato
Schools were destroyed as symbols of “thought control” and over 100,000 children could not return to school.

55. Xenophobia: a backlash
Reactionary to Diaz coddling of foreign interests. Labeled exploiters and often targeted by revolutionary groups.
Stories of foreign residents murdered (village of 200 Chinese migrants– Spanish expelled by Villa– US based Mormon missionaries were targeted and forced to leave their mission duties)

56. But the good:
Emerging Mexican national identity that includes the masses.
Shifting expectations of land and labor
Constitution and a move towards a republic base of power
Recognition as an American independent nation

57. Women in the Revolution
Intellectuals
Called for equal rights, women’s suffrage, and other reforms
Often endured threats, imprisonment, etc.
Soldaderas
Served as nurses, cooks, foraged for food, washed clothes and other services
Served in the rebel army and the federal army
Women Soldiers fought alongside the men with equal honor
Women workers and farmers when the men were gone.
Were often at the mercy of passing armies: noted stories of rape and assault

58. Women in the Revolution

59. Women in the Revolution

60. Soldaderas and the role of women: emancipation and liberalism
Women found new opportunities after the war because of the shortage of adult males due to such a high death count. Women could contract themselves more favorably.
Women found a new voice in local governments after earning the “respect” of their male peers during the fighting.
New educational opportunities developed in response to these new roles being filled by women.

61. Cultural and art movement develops to define a new identity
Mariano Azuela wrote Los de Abajo focused on telling the story of the revolution through the perspective of the masses. It is an honest insight and criticism of the revolution as it affected people.
Mexican music: Manuel Ponce and Carlos Chavez-- native sound develop that blend folk tradition Adelita, Valentina, La Cucaracha and other songs of the revolution became national anthems and ballads

62. Art movement and muralism
Artists were some of the most vocal opponents of the Diaz regime and the limitations of art in the Porfiriato.
Ironically, Huerta was the leader who assigned a native director to the Art Academy: Alfredo Ramos Martiez who reformed the curriculum and introduced a native identity to visual arts.
Introduced muralism.

63. Diego Rivera

64. Diego Rivera

65. The Constructive Phase
“The revolution begins when the fighting ends” – Dr. Marjorie Sanchez Walker

66. Constructive Phase 1920-1930 Is the Revolution over at this point?
Obregon elected President in a legitimate election after Carranza flees (November 1920).
Obregon implements the constitution and national reconstruction– focuses on reconstruction and education reforms through modest but decisive changes.
Struggled with the Post-WWI slump and finding markets for Mexican resources
Oil industry was thriving but largely foreign owned– Obregon slowly nationalize the oil industry and pushed out foreign companies (this will become a controversial decision with the U.S.)
Producing 193 million barrels of oil: 3rd largest producer

67. Jose Vasconcelos Article 3: Vasconcelos: Secretary of Education
Considered one of the brightest minds of Mexico
Vasconcelos was anti-Diaz
Ateneo de la Juventud
Supporter of Madero
Constitutionalist activist during Huerta’s regime
Carranza supporter of educational reform
Obregon makes him an official cabinet member

68. Vasconcelos continued Huerta’s and Naranjo’s reforms
Continued revision of curriculum
Patron of the rural school
Advocated for increased educational funds
Compulsory streamlined education of rural children in elementary:
Reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, Mexican History.
Resistance to teachers: viewed as government agents encroaching on church domain.
Shift in time and with adult education.
Built over 1000 schools and 2000 libraries built in 4 years ( ) (portable libraries for rural schools)

69. Article 3: flaws and compromise
The government did not have enough money to fully implement secular free compulsory education.
Allowed some church schools with strict oversight and control of the curriculum
Encouraged Protestant missionaries and the YMCA to establish schools and social programs.

70. Murals: Cultural art told stories and history lessons
Used to teach Mexico history to illiterate and non-Spanish speaking citizens.
Created a national identity on an international level.
Included a native identity: murals reflected society.

71. Article 123: Labor reform
Obregon worked with Luis Morones (head of CROM) and supported the union organization to avoid any labor backlash.
Modest reforms laborers were offered some protections in various industries.
CROM membership rose from 50, mil in 4 years.
Labor disputes were often handled locally and Obregon received criticism for not being more directly pro-active in thee labor issues.
Other unions were not supported…radical anti-government unions were crushed.
Communist Federation styled after Marxist ideas
Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies) anarchist
Considered foreign influence and extremist therefore outlawed.
Some critics argued his favoritism undermined the power of CROM

72. Article 27: Land reform Compromised on land distribution.
Feared a breakdown of haciendas would result in a drop of agricultural productivity (farms are already destroyed and people are starving– can’t risk it)
Feared a backlash and loss of support from the United States regarding foreign investment
Proceeded slowly but Obregon redistributed 3 million acres of land to over 600 villages establishing “ejidos” during his presidency benefitting 140,000 villagers
Criticized by Soto y Gama and other Zapatistas for not supporting land reform properly.

73. Obregon and the United States
President of the United States:
Warren G. Harding –
Republican supporter of Capitalism, Free-enterprise, and big business.
Large influence by the oil industry and Sinclair, Doheny ,Hammon (oil giants) Extra Credit: research the Teapot Dome Scandal
Argued to protect U.S. investment and ownership in Mexico and protested Article 27
Demanded withdrawal of presidential recognition if Obregon enforced the article

74. Constitutional interpretation:
Obregon fears economic destruction if oil production stops.
Obregon fears political suicide if he caves to US pressure
Mexican Supreme Court intervened and ruled that oil companies would not be seized if the company was performing “positive acts” of development prior to the implementation of the Constitution.
What is a “positive act”?

75. Bucareli Agreement
Allowed active investors in Mexico to retain their property.
Allowed Mexican government to seize fallow and undeveloped land from foreign investors.
Set precedence for future investments with foreign investors
Worked towards resolving “loss of property” claims during the revolution.
Mexican nationalists viewed the Bucareli agreement as selling out Mexican rights and called for revival of revolution: Is this why Villa was threatening to come out?

76. Legacy of Obregon
Very progressive in presidency based on Mexican history.
Could not satisfy all factions
Labor leaders not part of CROM
Church (even though Obregon avoided enforcing the anti-clerical laws)
Hacendados and Large land owners
Some foreign investors
Would encourage a peaceful transition of the presidency to Plutarco Calles

77. Plutarco Elias Calles Became president in 1924.
Transitioned to power peacefully
Comes from a poor rural family
Attended school and became a public school teacher.
Became political during the revolution; loyal to Obregon and became revolutionary provisional governor of Sonora.
Supported both labor and agrarian reform
Had support for presidential transition from liberal groups

78. Plutarco Elias Calles: Considered a radical liberal: no compromise
Faced immediate opposition:
Conservative Catholics: feared anti-clerical rhetoric
Hacendados feared loss of property
Foreign industrialists opposed to labor reform
Military leaders who felt Obregon
Nationalists (anti-Bucareli)
Silenced labor leaders
De la Huerta (insulted he didn’t receive the nomination)
Considered arrogant and domineering: believed in a strong presidency.
Intolerant and became dictatorial (comparisons made to Diaz)
Abused military power
Arrested political prisoners (many “committed suicide”) compared to Jacobin and Stalinist purges

79. Stronger economy
Redistributed land to communal ejidos: 8 million acres of land (the bay area is 4 million acres so double it… the country of Belgium is 7.5 million acres)
Established irrigation projects, and agriculture schools, and credit system for farms to help productivity with peasants
Foreign trade boomed
By 1924, the post WWI slump is starting to improve globally and trade is growing:
What foreign policy is being developed at this time that will improve international relations?

80. Labor Reform Supported CROM
Luis Morones (head of CROM) became Secretary of Labor and confidante of Calles.
Other CROM officials became high ranking government cabinet members. Accused of graft.
Independent unions were consolidated into CROM and CROM membership over 1.8 million.
Minimal labor reform overall… but CROM often protected over employers and other unions
Morones received kickbacks and became independently wealthy

81. Education Reform:
Vasconcelos very effective (over 1000 rural schools opened by 1924– mostly rural locations)
Vasconcelos replaced by Casauranc and Saenz – competent and smart… continued Vasconcelos plan.
Added 2000 more rural schools for natives: focused on teaching Spanish and assimilation into new Republic. (Called it acculturation)
Focused largely on agriculture schools

82. Building Mexico Infrastructure
Created a health and sanitation program
Clean market regulations
Food and milk reform for pure foods
FDA inspections of factories, butchers, bakeries, cantinas, barber shops, and other public facilities
Vaccination campaign developed
(5 million Mexicans were vaccinated against small pox)

83. Foreign Relations:
U.S. wanted a strengthened (dominant?) relationship between the two countries regarding oil production (most important global commodity now)
Calles stood up to the U.S. and refused to offer more than the Bucareli agreements nor did they agree to exclusive trade.
U.S. Secretary of State (Kellogg) accused Mexico of devising a Bolshevik plot to seize control of U.S. interests in Mexico and demanded Mexico concede
Calles responded by implementing the “positive acts” clause and began confiscating eligible land. Determined companies would have to keep applying every 50 years to maintain “positive acts” (demonstrating Mexican sovereignty and he would not be bullied).

84. It worked: Kellogg shut down (focused his energy on Europe– what did he do next?) A new ambassador assigned
Dwight Morrow: U.S. Ambassador went to Mexico and found compromise with Mexican government. Fell in love with Mexican culture.
Supreme Courts of Mexico ruled Mexico’s positive acts clause legal but overruled the 50 year requirement.
Calles was happy with the Ambassador and accepted the Supreme Court ruling.
Calles-Morrow Agreement of 1928: Historical Name
U.S. accepted Supreme Court ruling as a fair compromise and recognized Mexican sovereignty over U.S. interests in Mexico.

85. Cristero Rebellion 1926-1929 Warm up:
To what extent was Calles justified in enforcing the anti-clerical laws of the Constitution of 1917?
To what extent was the Catholic Church justified in resisting and protesting the anti-clerical laws of the Constitution?
Cristero Rebellion

86. Cristero Rebellion (February 1926) Political Resistence
Calles decided to enforce the anti-clerical laws in order to strengthen the Federal government.
Calles ordered the suspension of religious festivals and traditions igniting peasant riots throughout Mexico (bajio region)
Strict religious practices were monitored: ex: one priest was allowed to lead worship services in the entire state of Chihuahua
Church property was seized; religious schools and monastaries were closed; foreign priests were expelled
Arrested members of the NCP and applied strict censorship

87. Archbishop of Mexico (Jose Mora del Rio) told Mexican citizens to reject the Constitution of 1917 and called for another revolution.
Calles disbanded the clerical orders and fully implemented anti-clerical constitution amendments
July 31, 1926: Churches went on strike and shut down for three years. !Viva Cristo Rey!

88. Rebellions throughout Mexico Led by: Anacleto Gonzalez Flores, Rene Capistran Garza and Enrique Gorostieta
Official Rebellion January 1, 1927: A la Nacion
This led to an attack on civil institutions (secular schools, government buildings,etc)
Murdered secular teachers and attacked trains killing innocent civilians but targeting government infrastructure.
The Pope issued denouncements of the Mexican govenrment: this would extend through the 1930s
Military murdered Church officials and priests and looted churches (turned them into stables)
Cristeros or supporters were executed with no trial.

89. From February-April 1927: Cristero troops would be surprisingly successful guerilla fighters reinforced with peasants.
April 1927: captured Anacleto Flores (civilian leader) tortured and killed him. Calles declared rebellion over.
To avenge death and prove it wasn’t over: raid against the Bank of Mexico (April 29th) fighting intensified (interesting role of women in rebellion… up to 25,000 women formed a women’s brigade IA topic?)

90. Diplomacy
By October 1927, U.S. Ambassador Morrow would help broker negotiations.
One of the reasons why this rebellion lasts so long is because of the transition of power process in the election of 1928:
This rebellion also revealed lasting dissatisfaction and factionalism throughout Mexico still in existence (especially in the northeastern region)
If you want to know more google it.

91. Election of 1928
Obregon received overwhelming support from Calles and constitutionalist supporters
(Calles thought Obregon would return the favor in 1934 election)
Two opposition candidates
General Francisco Serrano and General Arnulfo Gomez: both well known military heroes
Anti-reelection stance accused government of unfair elections and started rebellion
Both dead by September 1928

92. Obregon wins victory: July 17, 1928
During celebration dinner, a young artist (Jose de Leon Toral) who had been sketching caricatures of dinner guests approached president-elect to show him drawings.
Shot Obregon 5 times (head shots)
Toral eventually confessed to being a Cristero supporter working with Sister Concepcion Acevedo de la Llata (Madre Conchita)

93. Obregon’s assassination forced a political vacuum and Calles had to fill it.
To honor the anti-reelection sentiment, he refused the office directly.
Controlled presidency behind the scenes (Jefe Maximo) We will return to this.
Congress chose Calles’ recommendation Emilio Portes Gil as interim but he would be replaced in the special election of November 1929

94. Madre Conchita
A nun who defied the government by holding mass and services in her house.
A group of zealots organized around her with her financial support and religious blessings.
After Toral confessed, entire Cristero ring was arrested and put on public trial
Trial was a sham of threats, violence, etc.
Toral executed:
Madre Conchita given maximum prison sentence for a woman: 20 years.

95. The interim president brings to an end… for political reasons
The interim president brings to an end… for political reasons? Special election coming
May 1, 1929: Portes Gil: “the Catholic clergy, when they wish, may renew the exercise of their rites with only one obligation, that they respect the laws of the land.”
Archbishop Ruiz y Flores issued a statement that they would not demand a repeal only a lenient application.

96. June 21, 1929: Morrow drafted the arreglos allowing worship to resume with concessions:
Only certain priests would have to register
No Catholic schools but education and worship would be allowed in churches
Clergy would be allowed to participate in the civic process but could not hold political offices.
Lands were returned to the church for use but remained federal property.

97. June 27, 1929: Church bells rang again
Eventually military would wear down the Cristeros
After the diplomacy agreements, the Church withdrew support and threatened to excommunicate anyone who remained in rebellion.
Casualties: 90,000 people
56,882 federal, 30,000 Cristeros, plus additional civilians, etc.
The Constitution was amended in 1992 to remove most of the anti-clerical language.
There is more information regarding the involvement of U.S. groups such as the Knights of Columbus and the KKK… if you want to know more google it.

98. The Maximato:
In the emergency election in November 1929, Calles decided to not run again (anti-reelection sentiment still a problem).
Organized the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR). Would change their name to Partido de la Revolucion Mexicana (PRM) and then Partido Revolucionario Internacional (PRI) with a national socialist policy– all the same party… Mexico became a single party state until 1982: they would be accused of dominance and corruption until multiple political parties formed in the 1980s.
Used national coalition to promote three presidents under the “influence” of Calles (jefe maximo)
Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio, Abelardo L. Rodriguez, Lazaro Cardenas would break from the Maximato after his election.

99. Special election of 1929 Elected the second puppet president: Rubio
Ran against Vasconcelos (who ran on the “national anti-reelectionist” ticket)– tried to “run against” Calles arguing that Rubio and Calles were the same.
Rubio won by 95% of the vote
1,948,848 Rubio to 110,979 Vasconcelos
Rubio remained in power for two years until he tried to challenge Calles’ authority; Calles had him removed from power and replaced him with Rodriguez

100. Is 1934 the end of the Revolution?
Support
Oppose
Violence will lessen; no armed insurrections by 1928.
After 1934, power will transition between presidents without interference
After 1934, Presidents will finish their presidential terms
By 1934, power will stabilize
3 presidents will hold office during one presidential term.
Calles will control the presidential nominations until 1934
Significant graft and corruption within leadership (government and military)
Great Depression and excessive government debt (despite the socialist millionaires)

101. Maximato progress Professionalized the military
(removed graft and instituted merit)
Included military leaders in political process so they had input in the budget, etc. -- minimized potential military coups
Ended the Cristero Rebellion and created moderate cooperation between church and state
Maximato mostly considered a conservative backlash and lacked progress like Madero.

102. Maximato failures Land redistribution stopped
Families like the Terrazas were allowed to purchase large plots of land again
(picked the most productive lands- paid higher price but had higher yield)
Government forced to abandon CROM because the leaders became corrupt
Government officials became very rich through manipulation and stealing from the treasury
“The Street of 40 thieves” “millionaire socialists”

103. Other influences: why did these revolutionaries ultimately fail.
Too much power and wealth too quickly?
Lack of political experience?
Temptation for personal gain?
International influence?
Domestic pressure?
Tradition?
The Great Depression… inevitable failure

104. Let’s talk Great Depression 1928-1932
Started the depression with $20 million pesos in reserve. ($15 million US)
Mexican imports crashed with no country to export during depression. (oil and metals)
Taxes declined because labor and spending declined.
Inflation caused the peso to crash
Treasury surplus gone by 1931 and created $80 million pesos debt
Government spending and employment cut drastically
No effective government relief for the escalating poverty
Is this an isolated issue? Discuss.
A really smart idea would be to create a document/chart comparing US/Europe/Mexico from
You should also find your sophomore notes.. You are gonna need them VERY soon…

105. Lazaro Cardenas Military leadership (worked through the ranks)
Civilian: considered a “thinker” handsome; deep conviction, academic… compared to Lenin?
Revolutionary politician: governorship in Michoacan.
Considered a man of the people: listener, met directly with the people and addressed concerns when he made policy decisions.
True social reformer in Michoacan (built hundreds of schools; personally inspected schools; monitored school and teacher salaries.
Distributed peasant land (modest)
Encouraged labor and peasant organizing and labor reform.

106. Presidential election of 1934: Calles supported Cardenas Expected a 4th puppet president. Won the presidency with significant support.
Challenged tradition:
Cut own salary and refused to move into the Presidential mansion– kept his own house.
Broke with the Calles regime–
cultivated support from the Junior army (knowing senior officials would not follow)
Raised salaries
Improved educational institutes for military development
Restructured military to promote talent
In 1936, Cardenas fired cabinet members, arrested Calles and his closest supporters and exiled them to the U.S.
Minor insurrection by Saturnino Cedillo-San Luis Potosi- army quelled rebellion within weeks, loyal to Cardenas

107. Man of the people: reputation As the story goes: When given a list of urgent matters
The list said: Bank reserves dangerously low. “Tell the Treasurer,” said Cardenas. Agricultural production falling. “tell the Minister of Agriculture.” Railroads bankrupt. “Tell the Minister of Communications.” Serious message from Washington. “tell Foreign Affairs.” Then he opened the telegram which read: My corn dried, my burro died, my sow was stolen, my baby is sick. Signed, Pedro Juan, village of Huitzlipituzco. “Order the presidential train at once,” said Cardenas. “I am leaving for Huitzlipituzco.”

108. Domestic Reforms
By 1934: 26 million acres of land was redistributed but minimal impact in rural regions and ejidos.
In next 6 years, Cardenas redistributed an additional 49 million acres.
1/3 of Mexican population received arable land under the agrarian reform program
Organized into communal ejidos
Large cattle ranches and semi-arid land remained untouched
Ex: (Laguna ejido) 8 million acres of land on the Coahuila-Durango border supported 30,000 families (long staple cotton, wheat, alfalfa, maize) and family subsistence plots

109. Did Land reform work? Negatives Positives
Rapid population growth overextended the ejidos.
Insufficient funds in the Banco to support the needs of the ejidos.
Favoritism played into some land redistribution and loans approved.
Over time ejidos production declined– cotton and henequen production crashed by 1938.
Not enough reform and insufficient land support
Criticism that not enough is done
Economic failure
Government supported schools, social services, community hospitals
To provide oversite: established the Banco de Credito Ejidal
Renewed faith in the revolutionary ideology
Shifted much needed support to rural villages
Broke many unproductive hacienda systems.
Political success

110. Church and State relations… avoided a disaster.
Cardenas: anticleric
Education:
Socialist doctrine
Sex ed to be included
Church threatened excommunication to children and parents who attended secular school
Church threatened a strike
Cardenas regime backed down to avoid another Cristero Rebellion.
Cardenas toned down the socialist rhetoric and encouraged the antireligious propaganda to be minimized.
“Man should not put his hopes in the supernatural. Every moment spent on one’s knees is a moment stolen from humanity.

111. Education reform:
1936: more than $10 million pesos dedicated to education reform…
increased to 11.3 million by 1940
This is twice as much as any President before
Literacy increased throughout Mexico
Focused heavily on rural and agricultural education; basic literacy and math skills
not universal eradication: high population growth combined with inflation and loss of budget kept illiteracy rates high.. (by 1940 there were 2 million more illiterate citizens than in 1930)
(These statistics would make more sense if we could equate percentage of literacy rates compared to total population… anyone want to figure this out? EC)

112. Labor reform and labor groups
Shifted support away from CROM to purify labor movement.
Marxian class struggle: socialist ideology
CTM (Confederacion Trabajadores de Mexico):
February 21, 1936
Lombardo Toledano
3000 unions united
600,000 workers  1 million in 2 years
Wage structure – increased minimum wage to a livable wage
1 peso, 6 centavo  3 peso, 50 centavo
(livable wage 4 pesos)

113. CROM  Obregon, Calles, PRN  Luis Morones  Corrupt
CTM  Cardenas, PRM, Toledano, Socialist Marxist struggle
 aligned with international socialist trade unions (specifically the Soviet American unions
(loosely aligned to the Soviet Union, European bloc – Cold War becomes relevant here)
CTM  1940’s presidencies, PRI, Velazquez, Conservative movement aligned to government
(Toledano broke from the CTM and the PRI to form the Partido Popular and was shunned by the establishment.)

114. FSTSE  1938, Federation of union workers in the Service of the State
CTM will eventually be challenged in the 1980’s… in 1992, the CT (Congress of Labor) aligned with the government officially and the CTM organization splintered
FSTSE  1938, Federation of union workers in the Service of the State
CROC  1952, the Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and Peasants
CROM is still active
1992: 9.5 million active union members (85% of the work force who are challenging the conservative corruption of the union leadership– Rank and File Movement
Is this a revolutionary period for Mexico too?

115. Nationalized subsoil and oil
Labor leads to backlash with US laborers.
1936: labor strike in the oil industry demanding recognition of the union.
Who owns most of the oil companies?
SO this becomes a national strike against foreign interests.

116. Board rules in favor of workers;
Cardenas orders the dispute to go to the Industrial Arbitration Board (proper protocols)
Board rules in favor of workers;
1/3 increase in wages
Improved pension and benefits
Companies claimed it would total $7 million loss in profits
Appeals to the Supreme Court

117. The Empire Strikes Back
Supreme Court rules in favor of workers.
Foreign owned companies refuse to follow decision and claim protections of their native country (US companies try to hide behind U.S. Constitution and labor codes)
U.S. Standard Oil and New Jersey Standard Oil (Chevron)
Shell/Royal Dutch (British oil companies)
March 18, 1938: Cardenas signs decree nationalizing all of the land– justified by the violation of Mexican sovereignty (Article 27) and violations of the Bucareli agreement.
Creates PEMEX to control the Mexican Petroleum monopoly

118. Backlash? Retaliation?
President FDR tried to implement the Good Neighbor Policy – noninterference in Mexico and other American countries-- but he was under extreme diplomatic and economic pressure.
Foreign companies demanded compensation for their losses in the expropriation.
The U.S. demanded $200 million
The British demanded $250 million
Cardenas refused the excessive demand and harsh bullying and argued they had made more than enough profit from Mexican subsoil. He offered them both $10 million
Foreign countries placed and embargo on Mexican oil cutting exports by 50%

119. Cooke-Zevada Agreement of 1942
Cardenas cut diplomatic ties to the embargo countries and found new markets…
Anyone want to guess who the new market was? Who is the only country still expanding in the end of the 1930’s who needs oil and resources?
This was exactly what FDR feared and he demanded the Secretary of State find a proper compromise with Mexico because they needed resources for WWII
Mexico agreed to pay the US $49 million as compensation for the expropriations
$24 million plus 3% interest for 5 years
Mexico would later pay the British $130 million in 1947

120. Expropriation Day = A day to celebrate Economic Independence Day
Both countries lifted the embargos but Mexico retained ownership of subsoil rights and PEMEX refused to allow foreign oil companies back in Mexico.
U.S. will turn to the Middle East and Venezuela for oil
PEMEX is the sole oil producing monopoly in Mexico today – controlled by the government

122. By Historians argue that most of the reforms of the Mexican revolution were achieved. To what extent do you agree?
Land reform– ejidos is there enough land redistribution?
Labor reform– CROM and CTM – is there enough protection?
Social reform– male dominated society but women had more educational and social opportunities
Education reform– development of rural schools and modern universities – does it improve the lives of the average citizen?
Urbanization – development of Mexico City as a cultural center with arts, music, and literature that reflected a true native Mexican identity – is there enough advancement to positively change the daily lives of people?
Industrialized and advancing technology (railroad, oil refineries, advanced farming equipment) – does the Mexican economy stabilize and improve?

123. Long term impact of Mexican Revolution
For more information: go to my website and read Chapter 39 of the “Reform Phase” file
You should also read Chapter 40 the Post Revolution file. It discusses how WWII impacted Mexico (this could help on Paper 2 and 3 in a major way) and stalled the continued progress. Mexico will eventually deteriorate and undo all of the Revolutionary reforms.
If you are REALLY interested in the long term impact of the Revolution, borrow the book from me and read the 4th section (several chapters) because it covers Mexico into the modern age
Paper 2 favorite question: How did WWII impact the development of a society in TWO regions (You could talk about Mexico compared to Germany division or breakdown of society in Eastern Europe, etc)
Paper 3 favorite question: How did WWII impact (one or two countries) in the Americas (U.S. development and Mexico)

124. Emergence of new political parties
New problems and a new Mexico after 1940… I would highly recommend you continue researching Mexico for your own knowledge… but our story stops here.
WWII
Cold War
Student protests
Emergence of new political parties
The rurales: police and political corruption
Violence escalating
The rise of the Cartels
Stagnation of progress