1. Moral Theory
Review

2. More on Facts and Truth
Facts – the way things actually are (sometimes called objective reality)
Truth – a statement that matches the facts (an accurate representation of the way things are)
Objective truths – represent objective facts
Relative truths – statement can only be evaluated relative to some other state of affairs

3. Belief and Proof
Belief – an opinion; a statement the believer thinks is true
Can a belief be false?
Proof – evidence or reasons that establish that a statement is true.
Can a belief be true but not proven?

4. Objectivism vs. Relativism
Should moral beliefs be evaluated on objective standards or relative to something else?
Ethical Objectivists believe that there are objective (universally valid) moral standards. According to this theory the truth of at least some moral claims is objective.

5. Absolutism An extreme version of Objectivism
Absolutists claim moral principals have no exceptions and are independent of context.
Most objectivist theories are not absolutist.

6. Ethical Relativism
Ethical Relativism – the claim that there are no objective moral principles.
The truth of all moral claims is relative to the beliefs of the individual or their culture.
Social relativism: The truth of moral principles is determined by social choice (e.g., cultural norms)
Individual relativism: The truth of moral principles is determined by the individual’s beliefs and choices

7. What’s wrong with relativism?
If relativism were an accurate account of the nature of morality:
Any behavior could be justified as morally right
Questions about right and wrong could be answered with opinion polls
Inter-societal moral judgments would be impossible
Revolutionaries would always be wrong
Moral progress would be impossible

8. A note on tolerance Good reasoners recognize their own fallibility
Objectivism does not entail forcing others to accept one’s beliefs
Appealing to the principle of tolerance is an appeal to an objective moral principle.

9. Moral Theory
Assuming morality is objective, how do you determine what is right or wrong?
The goal of moral theory is to develop a systematic way of determining what makes an action right or wrong.

10. Consequentialism Morality is based on the outcome (i.e. consequences)
Consequentialism is not egoistic
Utilitarianism is a type of consequentialism
Consequentialists weigh likely positive and negative consequences to determine the right action.

11. Pros & Cons Consequentialist reasoning is quite common
Consequentialist reasoning is “fair”
It seems to make morality clear cut
But it can very difficult to predict and weigh the consequences
It is often oversimplified or improperly used to rationalize choices
Consequentialists must be very careful to consider all of the consequences for all those affected.

12. There are many counter-examples
Consequentialism does not allow for “special obligations” (lifeboat example)
Sometimes consequentialism seems to validate actions that are clearly wrong. (forced organ donor example)

13. Deontology
Morality is based on duties/obligations/principles rather than consequences
Kant was a deontologist.
The categorical imperative: Act only on that principle whereby you can will that it become a universal law.
Applies universally because of human dignity

14. Examples of Principles
Fidelity
Veracity
Autonomy
Beneficence
Nonmaleficence
Justice

15. Questions for deontologists
Where do the principles come from?
All deontological theories have to face the difficulty of defending and justifying their principles
When principles conflict: how does one determine which takes precedence?

16. Virtue Ethics Originated with Aristotle
Focuses on the individual’s character rather than her or his particular actions
Virtues are dispositions/habits -- you have to work to get them
There is no definitive list of virtues, but some possibilities are: wisdom, courage, compassion, generosity

17. Virtue ethics + ?
Character plays a key role in making good choices, but you still need some way to determine which choices are the right ones.
Virtue ethics provides limited guidance in moral decision making

18. The ethics of care
Traditional theories have been criticized for being “cold”
Some theorists suggest that human relations are not cold and abstract
They suggest that moral emotions such as care and empathy should be included in the considerations about right action. (e.g., warm and cold doctors)

19. What to do? There is not one established theory to guide our choices.
Reasoned choices require that the moral agent consider consequences and duties in a caring and empathetic way.