1. Crime prevention, control, punishment and victims
The focus on crime has now turned more to crime prevention ie security systems that deter people from carrying out crimes in the first place
This is known as situational crime prevention

2. Situational crime prevention: Clarke (right realist)
Clarke describes crime prevention as a ‘pre-emptive’ (predict it can happen) approach that relied not on improving society or institutions but on reducing opportunities for crime
He identified 3 features of measures aimed at situational crime prevention:
1: they are directed at specific crimes
2: they involve managing or altering the environment
3: they aim to increase the efforts and risks of committing crime and reducing rewards
Clarke suggests that ‘target hardening’ measures such as locking doors and windows increases the effort a burglar needs to make
While increased surveillance in shops via cctv or security guards increase the likelihood of shoplifters being caught
Thus, the offender rationally weighs up the costs and benefits of a crime opportunity before deciding whether to commit it
This contrasts with previous theories of crime that stress the root of cause of crime eg poor socialisation
Clarke argues that most theories offer no realistic solutions to crime, so he advocates reducing the opportunities of crime

3. A02 felson: bus terminal in new York
Was poorly designed and provided opportunities for deviant conduct
Eg the toilets were the setting for luggage thefts, sleeping rough, drug dealing and homosexual liaisons
Re-shaping the environment to design crime out greatly reduced activity

4. Evaluation of situational crime prevention: displacement
One criticism of situational crime prevention measures is that they do not stop crime; they simply displace it
If criminals are acting rationally, presumably they respond to target hardening simply by moving to where targets are softer
A02: chiaken et al found that a crackdown on subway robberies in new York merely displaced them to the streets above
Displacement can take several forms:
A: spatial: moving elsewhere to commit crime
2: temporal: committing it at a different time
3: target: choosing a different victim
4: tactical: using a different model/approach
4: functional: committing a different type of crime

5. More criticisms of situational crime prevention
- situational crime prevention only works to some extent in reducing crimes, with most measures there is likely to be some displacement
Marxists would argues it only focuses on street crime and ignores white collar crime, corporate crime which are costly and harmful – snider
It assumes criminals make rational choices similar to right realism, yet they may be under the influence of alcohol
It ignores the root causes like poverty
Cctv has been criticised for focusing on young women all part of the male gaze for feminists, not making them any safer

6. Environmental crime prevention
Links with wilsons broken windows/ zero tolerance of right realism

7. Clean car programme in new York
Was put into place on the subway when carriages were taken out of service immediately if they had graffiti on them
As a result, graffiti was largely removed from the subway
A03: not clear how far zero tolerance was the cause of improvements, the nypd benefitted from 7k extra officers, there was a general decline in the crime rate in major cities- including ones where police did not introduce zero tolerance policies
The early 90s had seen a major recession and high unemployment, but from 1994 many new jobs were being created and there was a decline in the availability of cocaine

8. A03 to environmental crime prevention
Generally focus on the fairly low level and interpersonal crimes of violence
This disregards the crimes of the powerful and environmental crimes
Interactionism: the definition of crime reflects the priorities of politicians and agencies tasked with crime prevention

9. Social and community crime prevention
Links with left realists

10. While studies by Wilson and keeling show some recognition of the role of the community and informal controls in preventing crime, the main emphasis has been on policing
Social and community prevention strategies centre on the offender and their social context. The aim is to remove the conditions that pre-dispose individuals to crime in the first place
These are longer term strategies, that seek to tackle the root cause of offending
A02: sure start programmes (compensatory education)- combats cultural deprivation –gives them values to succeed in education- func, new right
A03: crimes of the powerful and environmental harm crimes are ignored

11. Surveillance

12. An important way of attempting to control peoples behaviour and to prevent crime is by means of surveillance
Definition: the monitoring of public behaviour for the purposes of population or crime control
It therefore involves observing peoples behaviour to gather data about it, and typically using the data to regulate, manage or control their behaviour

13. Foucault
Sovereign power: before the 19th century was a brutal spectacle where the monarch had absolute power (divine right of kinds) over people and their bodies
Disciplinary power: was dominant from the late 19th century. Foucault argues that prison is one of a range of institutions, that from the 19th century, increasingly begun to subject individuals to disciplinary powers to includes self surveillance. These include: mental institutions, workhouses, schools
In foucaults view, disciplinary power has now infiltrated every [art of society/ it governs every part of the bod and soul. It does this through surveillance
Foucault demonstrated disciplinary power through the concept of the panopticon (observe all)
The panoptical technique is widely used through: random control, repression and constitution of criminal records for minor offence, are the types of strategies used on a daily basis in liberal countries to maintain social order (status quo)
Unlike sovereign power, which seeks to crush or suppress offenders, disciplinary power involves intensely monitoring the individual with a view to rehabilitating them, using expert knowledge eg psychologists to correct deviant behaviour
Increasing non prison based social control practices such as community service are part of an umbrella of surveillance including social workers, teachers and even psychiatrists exercise surveillance over the popular

14. Surveillance theories since Foucault
Mathiesen: argues that foucaults account of surveillance only tells half a story. He introduced the concept of the synopticon. The panopticon: allows the few to see the many, the synopticon: everybody watches everybody
Thomspon: argues that powerful groups such as politicans fear the medias surveillance as they may uncover damaging information about them, and this acts as a from of social control over their activities
Another emphasis where the public monitor each other eg through the use of dashcams, this may warn users about their behaviour and result in them exercising self discipline
However, mccahil argues that there is still a hierarchy of surveillance as the police are still able to confiscate the mobile phones and cameras of citizen journalists

15. Surveilliant accumulations: haggerty and Ericson
Suggest that surveillance technology now includes the manipulation of virtual objects in cyber space rather than physical bodies in physical space
Eg cctv footage can be analysed using facial recognition software
They call these surveilliant accumulations where data from different technologies can be combined to create a data double of an individual

16. Lyon: actuarial justice and risk management
The purpose of this social sorting is to be able to categorise people so that they can be treated differently according to the level of risk they pose
One effect of this is to place entire groups under suspicion of wrong doing. Eg the west midlands sought to introduce a counter terrorism scheme to surround mainly two muslim suburbs of Birmingham with about 150 cameras, some of them covert, thereby placing whole communities under suspicion
A03: danger of the self fulfilling prophecy ie police targeting certain groups eg young, black males, will more likely to be caught and convicted

17. Punishment

18. One of the most effective measures to dealing with crime is argued to be punishment. This involves inflicting harm; two major justifications that have been offered include:
1: reduction: reduce crime
2: retribution: pay for what you did
Reduction:
1: deterrence: punishing the individual discourages them from future offending. By making an example of them they may also serve as a deterrent to the public at large. Eg prison
2: rehabilitation: the idea that punishment can be used to reform of change offenders so they can no longer offend. Rehabilitation policies include providing education and training for prisoners so that they are able to earn an honest living on realise, and anger management courses for violent offenders
3: incapacitation: is the use of punishment to remove the offenders capacity to offend again eg cutting off hands, execution, chemical castration
Retribution: means paying back. It is a justification for punishing crimes that have already been committed, rather than preventing future crimes

19. Sociological perspectives on punishment

20. Functionalism
Functionalists argue that punishment functions to reinforce solidarity and reaffirm shared values by expressing society's outrage; as a result this can also reinforce the accepted parameters of behaviour.
Durkheim found that in traditional society, as the collective conscience was so strong, deviance often resulted in a strong passion to see harsh retribution which is a from of severe and cruel punishment.
Such punishment would make an example of the wrongdoer and justify rituals such as public execution as pay back to society. It is based on the idea that offenders deserve to be punished and that society is entitled to take its revenge on the offender for having breached its moral code.
This results in reinforcing value consensus and members feel a sense of moral unity that justice has been served.
However, Durkheim was wrong in assuming that traditional society were based on retributive justice- it was actually based on restitutive justice whereby crimes are often settled by payment of compensation rather than execution

21. Marxism
Marxists believe the function of punishment is to maintain the existing social order/ status quo as it defends the position of the bourgeoisie through the repressive state apparatus whereby punishment is served to benefit ruling class interests.
Melossi takes this idea further and suggests that punishment replicates the capitalist relations of production and reflects social inequality.
For example, capitalism puts a price on the workers time, likewise prisoners ‘do time’ to pay for their crime. As a result, the prison and capitalist factories both have a similar, struct discipline style which involves the subordination of the proletariat and the loss of their liberty.
Thus, preventing the proletariat from attempting to change society.
Similarly, interactionism would agree in the sense that those who make the laws- rule creators will only create laws to further their position and victimises the lower classes who are automatically targeted due to these laws; whereas those in power are at no risk

22. The changing role of prison

23. Originally prisons were holding places before shipping or hanging
Originally prisons were holding places before shipping or hanging. After the enlightenment prisons began to be seen as a form of punishment in itself, where prisoners would be reformed through ‘hard labour’
However, it has not proved to be effective as 2/3 of prisoners have gone on to commit offences on release
Many critics regard prison as simply an expensive way of making bad people worse. However, there has been a move starting with new labour to use prison for pretty offenders, to use them as a deterrent
As a result, the prison population has swollen, this has created overcrowding and poor sanitation. England and wales has a higher prison population than most of the other countries in europe
Prison population is largely male. They are young and poorly educated. Black and ethnic minorities are disproportionately over represented. This is replicated in the prison population of the us

24. Mass incarceration
Since the 70s the numbers in prison has risen rapidly, particularly in the us, which has three times the rate of the European rate of imprisonment
Gordon argues that prison in the us has ceased to be about the incarceration of individual offenders and instead has become the systematic imprisonment of whole groups of the population ie young, black males
This can be related to gordons work, which argued that this has an ideological function. This us prison population soaks up 30-40% of the unemployed
Like Britain there has been an emphasis on being tough on crime. It has also been suggested that the use of prison in the us is to wage Americas war on drugs

25. Transcarceration
This is where an individual becomes locked in a cycle of control, shifting from one control agency to another in their lives
Growing up in care-> sent to young offenders institution -> time in mental institution -> adult prison

26. Alternatives to prison
In the past a major goal of young offenders was to divert them away from contact with the cjs, to avoid turning them into serious criminals
For example: curfews, probation, community service, electronic tagging, asbos
Yet a number of young people in custody has risen far from diverting away from it, they may have been diverted into it

27. Victimology
The victims of crime

28. The UN defined a victim as: those who have suffered harm (including mental, physical or emotional suffering, economic loss and impairment of their basic rights) through acts of omissions that violate the existing laws of the state
Christle however argues that the notion of the victim is socially constructed. A stereotype created by the media, of a weak, innocent and blameless individual, who is the target of the strangers attack
Nevertheless it is seen as important to study the victims because they can tell us much about the detection of offenders and how they act as witnesses at trials

29. Positivist victimology: miers sees this as having three features

30. 1) Aims to identify the factors that produce patterns in victimisation, especially those that make some individuals more likely to be victims
Social class: the poorest groups are likely to be victimised, w/c likely to commit crimes on own class as it is easier to commit crime- less protection. Lack of power, high levels of unemployment, broken windows
Age: younger people are more likely to be victims, followed by older people. Young are more vulnerable, sexual assault as attractive, burglary, out socialising more, more likely to be drunk. Old: more vulnerable, physically weak, easily manipulated, no company, support, live alone
Ethnicity: minority groups are at greater risk than whites of being victims, hate crimes, racism, not everyone is tolerant, can be manipulated, may not be aware they are victims, the media
Gender: males are at greater risk of being victims than females, masculinity- violence- prove theyre real men, more prepared to take riscks- fatalism, socialisation, girls- bedroom culture

31. Repeat victimisation
This refers to the fact that if you have been a victim of crime, you are very likely to be one again
According to the csew, 40% of the population have been victims in one year

32. It focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence2 3
It focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence
It aims to identify victims who have contributed to their own victimisation
Early positivts studies focused on the idea of victim proneness. It has sought to identify the social and psychological characteristics of victims that make them different from and more vulnerable than non victims
Von hentig: identified 13 characteristics of victims eg mentally subnormal, females, the elderly etc. the implication is that they invite victimisation. However this may also be applied to the rich who display their wealth

33. Evaluation of positivist victimology
This approach ignores the fact that in homicides, those who become the victim by a matter of chance
This approach identifies certain patterns of interpersonal victimisation, but ignores structural causes of victimisation
Can easily turn into victim blaming
Ignores situations where people don’t realise that they are being victimised eg environmental pollution

34. Critical victimology

35. This is based on Marxism which argues that power places powerless groups at risk of victimisation
Feminists would attribute female victimisation to patriarchy
The states power to apply or deny the label of victim eg where employers violations of health and safety laws that leads to the death or injury of workers is blamed on ‘accident prone employees’

36. Tombs and whyte
Suggest that safety crimes where employers violations of the law lead to death of injury to workers is often explained as the fault of accident prone workers
As with many rape cases this both denies the victim official ‘victim status’ and ‘blames’ for their fate
They see that by concealing the true extent of victimisation and its causes, hides the crimes of the powerful and denies the powerless victim redress

37. Evaluation of critical criminology
It disregards the role that victims may play in brining victimisation upon themselves through their own choices
It is valuable in drawing attention away from the powerful to the powerless focusing on the construction of the victim