1. TYPES OF STEM CELLS

2. EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS
Embryonic stem cells are derived from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro.
They are donated for research purposes with informed consent of the donor.
The embryos from which human embryonic stem cells are derived are typically four and five days old and are hollow microscopic balls of cells called the blastocyst.
The blastocyst includes three structures- trophoblast , blastocoels and inner mass cell.

4. BLASTOCYST Three structures :
Trophoblast – Layer of cells that surrounds the blastocyst.
Blastocoel – hollow cavity inside the blastocyst.
Inner cell mass – Group of approximately 30 cells at one end of the blastocyst.

5. HOW ARE EMRYONIC STEM CELLS GROWN IN THE LABORATORY
Over the course of several days, the cells of the inner cell mass proliferate and begin to crowd the culture dish.
When this occurs, they are removed gently and plated into several fresh cultured dishes.
The process of replating the cells is repeated many times for many months and is called sub culturing.
After six months or more, the original 30 cells of the inner cell mass yield millions of embryonic stem cells.
Embryonic stem cells that have proliferated in cell culture without differentiating, are pluripotent, and appeared genetically normal are referred to as an embryonic stem cell line.

7. LAB TEST USED TO IDENTIFY EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS
Growing and subculturing the stem cells for many months. The culture is inspected under microscope to see that cells look healthy and remain undifferentiated.
Using specific techniques to determine the presence of surface markers that are found only on undifferentiated cells.
Examining the chromosomes under the microscope.
Determining whether the cells can be subcultured after freezing, thawing, and replating.

8. TEST WHETHER HUMAN EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS ARE PLURIPOTENT
Allowing the cells to differentiate spontaneously in cell culture.
Manipulating the cells so they will differentiate to form specific cell type.
Injecting the cells into an immunosuppressed mouse to test for the formation of a benign tumor called teratoma.

9. EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS STIMULATED TO DIFFERENTIATE
As long as embryonic stem cells in culture are grown, under certain conditions they remain undifferentiated.
But, if cells are allowed to clump together to form embryoid bodies, they began to differentiate spontaneously.
They can form muscle cells, nerve cells, and many other types of cells.
Spontaneous differentiation is not an efficient way to produce cultures of specific cell type.
Cultures of specific types of differentiated cells can be generated by changing the chemical composition of the culture media, or modifying the cells by inserting specific genes.

11. PROPERTIES OF EMBRYONIC CELLS
Derived from inner cell mass of the blastocyst.
Capable for undergoing an unlimited number of systematic divisions without differentiating in vitro.
Can give rise to differentiated cell types corresponding to endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm derivatives of an embryo.
Capable of integrating into a foetal tissue during development.
Capable of colonizing the germ line and giving rise to egg or sperm.
Able to give rise to a colony of genetically identical cells.

12. ADULT OR SOMATIC STEM CELLS
Undifferentiated cell found among differentiated cells in a tissue or organ, can renew itself and can differentiate to yield the major specialized cell types of tissue or organ.
Major function- to maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found.
Remain quiescent for relevantly long period to time until they are activated by signals to maintain tissues.
They divide through a process called asymmetric cell division, when activated.
This helps them to maintain their population and differentiate into the desired cell type.

13. LOCATION OF ADULT STEM CELLS
Reside throughout the body.
Very small number of stem cells in each tissue.
Stem cells reside in a specific area of each tissue are called “stem cell niche” where they remain quiescent for many years.
Mutations in cells, signals they receive and changes in the microenvironment can activate a stem cell.

15. TEST USED TO IDENTIFY ASC
Labeling the cell with molecular markers and then determining the specialized cell type they generate.
Removing the cells from living animal, labeling them in cell culture, transplanting them back in another animal to determine whether the cells repopulate their tissue or origin
Isolating the cells, growing them in cell culture, manipulating them, often by adding growth factors or introducing new genes, to determine what differentiated cells types they can become.

16. TESTS USED TO IDENTIFY ASC
PLASTICITY OR TRANSDIFFERENTIATION:-
Adult stem cells may also exhibit the ability to form specialized cell types of other tissues known as plasticity or transdifferentiation.

17. TYPES OF ADULT STEM CELLS
Hematopoietic stem cells- Give rise to all types of blood cells- RBC, B and T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, neutrophils, basophiles, eosinophils, monocytes, macrophages, and platelets.

19. TYPES OF ADULT STEM CELLS
Bone marrow stromal cells- Also known as mesenchymal stem cells give rise to variety of cell types: bone cells (osteocytes),cartilage cells (chondrocytes),fat cells (adipocytes), and other kinds of connective tissue cells such as those in tendons.

21. TYPES OF ADULT STEM CELLS
Neural stem cells- In the brain give rise to its three major cell types: nerve cells (neurons) and two categories of non neuronal cells- astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.
Epithelial stem cells- In the lining of the digestive tract occur in deep crypts and give rise to several cell types: absorptive cells, goblet cells, Paneth cells and enteroendocrine cells.

22. TYPES OF ADULT STEM CELLS
Skin stem cells- Occur in the basal layer of the epidermis and at the base of hair follicles. The epidermal stem cells give rise to keratinocytes, which migrate to the surface of the skin and form a protective layer. The follicular stem cells can give rise to both the hair follicle and to the epidermis.