1. The Skills of Constructing Arguments
Writing Clinic, RSIS
Dr Sng Bee Bee
Taught by Dr. Sng Bee Bee • Singapore Bible College Files in many languages for free download at BibleStudyDownloads.org

2. The Logical Structure of Arguments
Logos refers to the strength of an argument’s and it’s internal consistency;
Logos is the argument’s logical structure

3. Consider the logic of:
‘If all ps are qs and if r is a p, then r is a q.’
If p is a class of actions called ‘Sexual Harassment’
If q is a class of actions called ‘Actions that Justify Dismissal from a Job’
And r is the class ‘Telling 0ff-Colour Stories’
Then p-q-r suggests that telling off-colour jokes is an instance of sexual harassment which justifies dismissal from one’s job.

4. Real World Arguments
In the real world, it is difficult to say rs are always ps or that every instance of p results in q
Therefore, it’s better not to use ‘prove’ when writing claims for arguments
Real-world arguments seldom prove anything
They make a case for something, a case that is weak or strong

5. Real-World Logic Real-world arguments are grounded in Beliefs
Assumptions
Values granted by the audience
These are often unstated. If these assumptions are not shared, then the writer has a problem, e.g.
‘Women should be allowed to join combat units because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes.’

6. How clear is the author’s position. What are the author’s assumptions
How clear is the author’s position? What are the author’s assumptions? Do you agree with his assumptions?
The brain of an elephant is five times larger than that of humans. Some people believe elephants are very intelligent but, even if that were true, are they really five times brighter than humans? But maybe we are looking at this the wrong way. After all, is it fair to compare the brain size of a large animal with that of a small creature? Perhaps it is relative size that matters? Human brains weigh as much as 2.5% of body weight whereas elephants’ brains are less than half of 1% of their total body weight. Proportionally, the brain of a human is 10 times greater than that of an elephant. Maybe, it is the ratio of brain to body size that matters? If that were the case, then, the shrew with its heavier brain, would be brighter than humans and elephants – and yet shrews do little more than sleep.

7. Premise in Real-World Arguments
The audience may not agree with the writer about gender roles. It may believe that gender roles are desirable due to cultural, religious and social expectations of women as nurturers, weaker sex etc.
To make the argument effective, the writer must supply a missing premise, ie that gender stereotypes are harmful and should be eliminated.

8. Premise
Premise must be rooted in assumptions, beliefs or values of the audience
‘Women should be allowed to join combat units = a claim
= a reason
because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes.’

9. What are the premises about gender made by the author
What are the premises about gender made by the author? Which premises do you agree and which you do not? Construct counter arguments to rebutt the premises that you disagree with.
Individuals have free will and so can control their own destiny. On the other hand, groups also have an identity. Research by Campbell (1984), for example, has shown that girls who mix with boys are more likely to have seen a fight and become involved in a fight than girls who mix mostly with girls. This suggests that aggressive behaviour is affected by the social environment and isn’t just about character. In everyday life, our sense of self is such that we believe we are making independent decisions. We are aware we have choice and we make decisions for ourselves. Groups can also force decisions upon members, sometimes without them realising.

10. To sum up:
Claims are supported with reasons, usually stated with a ‘because’ clause;
The claims are incomplete until the unstated assumptions are explained;
For the claims to be effective, they must be a belief, value, or principle that the audience grants.

11. Counter-arguments
All assertions and assumptions are contestable by ‘opposing counsel’
All final verdicts about the persuasiveness of the opposing arguments will be made by a neutral judge

12. Warrant We use the term ‘warrant’ to substitute ‘unstated assumption’
Initial Claim: Women should be allowed to join combat units because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes
Claim: Women should be allowed to join combat units
Stated Reason: because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes
Warrant: Gender stereotypes are harmful and should be eliminated.

13. Warrant
A warrant is the value, belief, or principle that the audience has to hold if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted
But arguments need more than claims, reasons, and warrants. These are the frame of the argument, not a developed argument
For arguments to be convincing, we need backing or grounds.

14. Grounds
Grounds are supporting evidence – facts, data, statistics, testimony, or examples – that cause you to make a claim in the first place
Claim: Women should be allowed to join combat units
Stated Reason: because the image of women in combat would help eliminate gender stereotypes
Grounds: data and evidence showing the stereotypes of women as soft and nurturing and men as tough and aggressive; image of women in combat can dispel such stereotypes

15. Grounds
What grounds can you establish for an argument you may develop to answer the following puzzle?:
Claim:
Stated Reason:
Grounds:

16. Rebuttals
Rebutting the reasons and grounds: Evidence that letting women join combat wouldn’t overcome gender stereotypes
Rebutting the warrant and backing: Arguments showing that it is important to maintain gender roles due to biological endowment, religious and cultural expectations.

17. Five W’s WHO is involved in this situation?
WHAT is at stake? What action or outcome is hanging in the balance?
WHEN did the action take place?
WHERE did the action take place?
WHY is what happened an important issue?

18. Discovering Different Perspectives
What is the issue connected or related to? What does this issue bring to mind? What common elements does this situation share with other situations I am familiar with?
What is the issue similar to or different from? What distinguishes this situation from other situations that at first glance might look very similar?

19. Black

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