1. Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss

2. Small-scale and large-scale fading

3. The three Basic Propagation Mechanism
Reflection: occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Diffraction:occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
Scattering:occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large.

4. Spectrum
twisted pair
coax cable
optical transmission
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
VLF LF MF HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
infrared
visible light UV
VLF = Very Low Frequency , LF = Low Frequency , MF = Medium Frequency ,
HF = High Frequency , VHF = Very High Frequency, UHF = Ultra High Frequency,
SHF = Super High Frequency,EHF = Extra High Frequency,UV = Ultraviolet Light,
Frequency and wave length: = c/f ,wave length , speed of light c  3x108m/s, frequency f

5. Frequencies for mobile communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
small antenna, focusing
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum

6. Free Space Propagation Model
In free space, the received power is predicted by
Pr(d): Received power with a distance d between Tx and Rx
Pt: Transmitted power
Gt: Transmitting antenna gain
Gr: Receive antenna gain
: The wavelength in meters.
d: distance in meters
L: The miscellaneous losses L (L>=1) are usually due to transmission line attenuation, filter losses, and antenna losses in the communication system. L=1 indicates no loss in the system hardware.

7. EIRP&ERP 2.15dB EIRP: Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator.
ERP: Effective Radiated Power
ERP is used instead of EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as compared to a half-wave dipole antenna (instead of an isotropic antenna).
In practice, antenna gains are given in units of dBi (dB gain with respect to an isotropic sourse) or dBd (dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole)

8. 9dBi antenna & 3dBi antenna

9. Path Loss
The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received power.
The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are included is given by quantity measured in dB, is defined as the
When antenna gains are excluded, the antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and path loss is given by
(f:MHz,d:km)

10. The far-field region of a transmitting antenna
The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for Pr for values of d, which are in the far-field of the transmitting antenna.
The far-field of a transmitting antenna is defined as the region beyond the far-field distance df , which is related to the largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture and the carrier wavelength. The far-field distance is given by
To be in the far-field region, d must satisfy

11. The Reference Distance
It is clear that equation does not hold for d=0. For this reason, large-scale propagation models use a known received power reference point. The received power, Pr(d), at any distance d>d0, may be related to Pr at d0.
If Pr is in units of dBm or dBW, the received power is given by

12. Log-distance path loss model
Both theoretical and measurement-based propagation models indicate that average received signal power decreases logarithmically with distance, whether in outdoor or indoor channels. The average large-scale path loss for an arbitrary T-R separation is expressed as a function of distance by using path loss exponent n.
n is the path loss exponent which indicates the rate at which the path loss increases with distance
d0 is the close-in reference distance which is determined
d is the T-R separation distance

13. Example
If a transmitter produces power:Pt=50w, receive sensitivity (minimum usable signal level)is -100dbm.Assume d0=100m, with a 900MHz carrier frequency, n=4,Gt=Gr=1; find the coverage distance d.
Transmit Power: Pt=50W=47dBm
Pr(d0)=-24.5dBm
PL(dB)=40log(d/d0)=-24.5-(-100)=75.5dbm
If n=4,log(d/d0)=75.5/40=1.8875,d=7718m

15. Log-normal Shadowing
The model in Equation (3.11) does not consider the fact that the surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly different at two different locations having the same T-R separation. This leads to measured signals which are vastly different than the average value predicted by Equation (3.11).

16. Simulation Results
Deep shadowing
Slight Shadowing

17. Log-normal Shadowing

18. Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area

19. as a function of probability of signal above threshold on the cell boundary.

20. Example Four received power measurements were taken at distances of 100 m, 200 m, 1 km, and 3 km from a transmitter. These measured values are given in the following table. It is assumed that the path loss for these measurements follows the model in Equation (3.12.a), where d0 = 100 m: (a) find the minimum mean square error (MMSE) estimate for the path loss exponent, n; (b) calculate the standard deviation about the mean value; (c) estimate the received power at d = 2 km using the resulting model; (d) predict the likelihood that the received signal level at 2 km will be greater than -60 dBm; and (e) predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that receives signals greater than -60 dBm, given the result in (d).

21. The MMSE estimate may be found using the following method
The MMSE estimate may be found using the following method. Let pi be the received power at a distance di, and let be the estimate for pi using the path loss model of Equation (3.10). The sum of squared errors between the measured and estimated values is given by
The value of n which minimizes the mean square error can be obtained by equating the derivative of J(n) to zero, and then solving for n.
(a)Using Equation (3.11), we find = pi(d0)-10nlog(di/ 100 m). Recognizing that P(d0) = 0 dBm, we find the following estimates for p, in dBm:
Setting this equal to zero, the value of n is obtained as n = 4.4.

22. = 6.17 dB, which is a biased estimate.
(b)The sample variance o2 = J(n)/4 at n = 4.4 can be obtained as follows.
therefore
= 6.17 dB, which is a biased estimate.

23. (c)The estimate of the received power at d = 2 km is
(d)The probability that the received signal level will be greater than -60 dBm is
(e)67.4% of the users on the boundary receive signals greater than
-60 dBm, then 92% of the cell area receives coverage above –60dbm

24. Outdoor Propagation Models
Okumura Model
Hata model

25. Okumura Model
not provide any analytical explanation
its slow response to rapid changes in terrain

26. Okumura median attenuation and correction

27. Example 3
Find the median path loss using Okumura's model for d = 50 km, hte = 100 m, hre = 10 m in a suburban environment. If the base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier frequency of 900 MHz, find the power at the receiver (assume a unity gain receiving antenna).

28. HATA model &COST –231 extension

29. Example 4
In the suburban of a large city, d = 10 km, hte = 200 m, hre = 2 m , carrier frequency of 900 MHz, using HATA’ s model find the path loss.

30. Indoor propagation models

31. Feature of Indoor Radio Channel
The distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances. It has been observed that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by specific features such as the layout of the building, the construction materials, and the building type.
Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and scattering. However, conditions are much more variable.

32. Path attenuation factors
Distance Losses
Partition Losses in the same floor
Partition Losses between Floors(floor attenuation factors, FAF)

33. Log-distance Path Loss Model
In door path loss has been shown by many researchers to obey the distance power law
Where the value of n depends on the surroundings and
building type,and X represents a normal random
variable in dB having a standard deviation of sigma. This
is identical in form to the log-normal shadowing model of
outdoor path attenuation model.

34. Attenuation Factor Model
Where nSF represents the exponent value for the “same floor” measurement. The path loss on a different floor can be predicted by adding an appropriate value of FAF

35. Signal Penetration into buildings
RF penetration has been found to be a function of frequency as well as height within the building
Measurements showed that penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency. Specifically, penetration attenuation values of 16.4dB, 11.6dB,and 7.6dB were measured on the ground floor of a building at frequencies of 441MHz, 896.5MHz, and 1400Mhz, respectly.
Results showed that building penetration loss decreased at a rate of 1.9dB per floor from the ground level up to the fifteenth floor and then began increasing above the fifteen floor.

36. Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
In recent years, the computational and visualization capabilities of computers have accelerated rapidly. New methods for predicting radio signal coverage involve the use of Site Specific (SISP) propagation models and graphical information system (GIS) database. SISP models support ray tracing as a means of deterministically modeling any indoor or outdoor propagation environment. Through the use of building databases, which may be drawn or digitized using standard graphical software packages, wireless system designers are able to include accurate representations of building and terrain features.

37. Exercises
1. If a transmitter produces 50W of power, express the transmit power in units of (a) dBm, and (b) dBW. If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is Pr(10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
2.If the licensee wishes to cover a city having a circular shaped area of 2500 sq km, and the base stations use 20 W transmitter powers and 10 dB gain omnidirectional antennas, determine the number of cells required to provide forward link coverage to all parts of the city. Assume four-cell reuse, and let n = 4 and the standard deviation of 8 dB hold as the path loss model for each cell in the city. Also assume that a required signal level of-90 dBm must be provided for 90% of the coverage area in each cell. Assume d0 = 1 km .(Q(0.1)=1.3)

38. 3.Find the median path loss using Okumura's model for d = 50 km, hte = 100 m, hre = 10 m in a suburban environment. If the base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier frequency of 900 MHz, find the power at the receiver (assume a unity gain receiving antenna).