1. The Art of Argument: The Toulmin Method

2. The Art of Argument
DEFINITION: A discourse intended to persuade an audience through reasons and evidence.

3. The Art of Argument Informal Logic: The Toulmin Method Background:
In 1958, Stephen Toulmin published The Uses of Argument, which has greatly influenced the study of analyzing and making arguments. His scheme was developed for use in courtrooms as a practical tool for persuading judges and juries. The model does not attempt to prove, but it gives good reasons and persuasive arguments.

4. The Art of Argument
In the Toulmin scheme, there are reasonable arguments on either side.
The model consists of the following:
Claim (also known as thesis or premise)
Data (also known as facts or reasons)
Warrant (also know as bridge)
Grounds (also known as evidence)
Backing (also known as foundation)
Counter Claim
Conditions of rebuttal
Qualifier

5. The Art of Argument
In the Toulmin scheme of argument, an enthymeme provides the claim, the data (facts or reasons) , and the warrant.
In analyzing MLK’s “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” one of the local clergymen’s objections to King’s involvement is restated
In the following enthymeme:
MLK should not be leading local protests because he is an outsider.

6. The Art of Argument The Toulmin Method: Claim:
the overall thesis the writer will argue.
must be arguable.
present an issue on that reasonable people
might disagree with.
Example: Martin Luther King, Jr. should not
be leading local protests.

7. because he is an outsider.
The Art of Argument
Data (Grounds/Reasons/Evidence):
Supports the claims.
An individual claim may have many supporting reasons for an argument.
Data is the basis of real persuasion and is made up of hard facts, plus the reasoning behind the claim
In the previous claim, the stated reason is…
because he is an outsider.

8. The Art of Argument Data (Grounds/Reasons/Evidence):
Data provide the actual evidence in support of the claim.
Data include facts, citations from authorities, examples, and statistics.
Well-stated grounds make data (reasons) more concrete for an audience.

9. The Art of Argument Warrant: (also referred to as a bridge)
Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim, the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim.

10. The Art of Argument Warrant: (also referred to as a bridge)
Including a well-thought-out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

11. The Art of Argument Warrant:
Stating warrants can be tricky because they can be phrased in various ways. What you are looking for is the general principle that enables you to justify the move from a reason to a specific claim – the bridge connecting them.
The warrant is the assumption that makes the claim seem believable.
It is often a value or principle that you share with your readers.

12. The Art of Argument Backing (also referred to as the foundation):
Backing supports the warrant.
If an audience already accepts the unstated assumption or warrant, then backing is unnecessary.
If the person making the argument is unclear about the warrant, or is unfamiliar with the values and beliefs of the audience, then the writer must provide backing to support the warrant.

13. The Art of Argument Backing:
In their statement of April 12, the Alabama clergymen give backing to support the warrant
“outsiders should not be leading local protests” by asserting that resolving these local problems requires people with “knowledge and experience of the local situation.”
It is to these statements that King reacts in his response.

14. The Art of Argument Counter Claim
Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a counterclaim.
Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument.
This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments. Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers.
It also makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the debate rather than just being biased or uninformed.
You may want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

15. The Art of Argument Counter claim:
A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.
No argument is complete without anticipating the counter-arguments.

16. The Art of Argument Rebuttal:
Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.
Rebuttal attacks the data (reasons) and grounds and/or the warrant and backing.

17. The Art of Argument
Let’s look at this example:
Claim:
Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

18. The Art of Argument Data 1:
Example:
Data 1:
Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity.
Warrant 1:
Because cars are the largest source of private air pollution, as opposed to industry – produced air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

19. The Art of Argument Example: Data 2:
Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.
Warrant 2:
Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

20. The Art of Argument Example Data 3:
Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.
Warrant 3:
This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. According to ineedtoknow.org “The hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer harmful emissions than a comparable gasoline engine."

21. The Art of Argument Example Counterclaim:
Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems.
Rebuttal:
While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

22. Outline of a Toulmin Argument
Claim : The federal government should ban smoking.
Qualifier: The ban would be limited to public spaces.
Data: Smoking causes serious diseases in smokers.
or reasons Nonsmokers are endangered by secondhand smoke.
Warrants: The Constitution promises to “promote the general welfare.”
Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others.
Backing: The U.S. is based on a political system that is supposed to serve
the basic needs of its people, including their health.
Data: Numbers of deaths attributed to secondhand smoke
(evidence) Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco companies,
citing the need for reparation for smoking-related health-
care costs.
Examples of bans already imposed in many public places
Authority: Cite the surgeon general.
Counterclaims: Smokers have rights, too.
Smoking laws should be left to the states.
Such a ban could not be enforced.

23. Outline of a Toulmin Argument
Responses:
The ban applies to public places: smokers can smoke in private.
The power of the federal government to impose other restrictions
on smoking (such as warning labels on cigarettes and bans on
cigarette advertisements on television) has survived legal challenges.
The experience of New York City, which has imposed such a ban,
suggests that enforcement would not be a significant problem.