Reframing Organizations, 4th ed.

Reframing Organizations, 4th ed.

Introduction The Power of Reframing
Virtues and Drawbacks of Organized Activity The Curse of Cluelessness Strategies for Improving Organizations: The Track Record Framing Multiframe Thinking

Are top managers clueless?
Home Depot CEO Bob Nardelli somehow didn’t anticipate that a rushed shareholders’ meeting where no one but him got to say anything would produce bad press and a major rebellion by shareholders and analysts.

CEO Jeff Skilling thought Enron was “in excellent shape” when he quit a few months before it collapsed

Joseph Berardino, CEO of Enron’s auditor, Andersen Worldwide, said no one told him some of his partners thought the firm was at risk in approving Enron’s aggressive accounting practices.

Are top manager clueless?
As New Orleans recovered from Hurricane Katrina, the Secretary of Homeland Security told reporters he had no reports of things that viewers had already seen on television news.

Virtues and drawbacks of organization
Prevalence of large, complex organizations is historically recent Much of society’s important work is done in or by organizations, but… They often produce poor service, defective or dangerous products and… Too often they exploit people and communities, and damage the environment

Signs of Cluelessness Management error produces bankruptcies of public companies every year Most mergers fail, but companies keep on merging One study estimates 50 to 75% of American managers are incompetent Most change initiatives produce little change; some makes things worse

Strategies to improve organizations
Better management Consultants Government policy and regulation

What is a frame? Mental map to read and negotiate a “territory”
The better the map, the easier it is to know where you are and get around (a map of New York won’t help in San Francisco) Frame as window: enables you to see some things, but not others Frame as tool: effectiveness depends on choosing the right tool and knowing how to use it

Framing and “Blink” process
Well-learned and practiced frames facilitate “rapid cognition” – the capacity to quickly and accurately size up situations Qualities of rapid cognition: Nonconscious (you can do it without thinking about it) Fast Holistic Results in “affective judgments”

Structural Frame Roots: sociology, management science
Key concepts: goals, roles (division of labor), formal relationships Central focus: alignment of structure with goals and environment

Human Resource Frame Roots: personality and social psychology
Key concepts: needs (motives), capacities (skills), feelings Central focus: fit between individual and organization

Political Frame Roots: political science
Key concepts: interests, conflict, power, scarce resources Central focus: getting and using power, managing conflict to get things done

Symbolic Frame Roots: social and cultural anthropology
Key concepts: culture, myth, ritual, story, Central focus: building culture, staging organizational drama

Structural and Human Resource Frames

Political and Symbolic Frames

Expanding managerial thinking
Traditional management thinking Artistic thinking See only one or two frames Holistic, multi-frame perspective Try to solve all problems with logic, structure Rich palette of options Seek certainty, control, avoid ambiguity, paradox Develop creativity, playfulness One right answer, one best way Principled flexibility

Conclusion Narrow thinking  clueless managers
Multiple frames improve understanding, promote versatility Multiple frames enable reframing: viewing the same thing from multiple perspectives

Simple Ideas, Complex Organizations
Chapter 2 Simple Ideas, Complex Organizations

Simple Ideas, Complex Organizations
Common Fallacies in Organizational Diagnosis Peculiarities of Organizations Organizational Learning Coping with Ambiguity and Complexity

Error in Organizations: The Tragedy of 9/11
System Failures Helped Terrorists Succeed Mindset error: defense systems hadn’t planned for domestic air attack, even though the possibility had long been recognized (they didn’t anticipate a “black swan” because they’d only seen white ones) Coordination error I: FBI/CIA (terrorists should have been on airport security watch lists) Coordination error II: FAA/NORAD (weak lateral communication hindered the two agencies from working together during the emergency)

Error in Organizations: Helen Demarco
Osborne announces revitalization plan Demarco and colleagues agree: it can’t work but we can’t tell him “Study” to buy time and develop strategy Option B: low benefits at high costs Technical jargon as camouflage Demarco feels frustration, failure

Peculiarities of Organizations
Organizations are complex Organizations are surprising Organizations are deceptive Organizations are ambiguous

Sources of ambiguity Not sure what the problem is
Not sure what’s going on Not sure (or can’t agree) on what we want Don’t have the resources we need Not sure who’s supposed to do what Not sure how to get what we want Not sure how to know if we succeed or fail

Organizational Learning
Peter Senge We learn best from experience, but often don’t know consequences of our actions System maps Barry Oshry Asymmetric relationships (top – middle – bottom – customer) “Dance of blind reflex”

Systems model for vicious learning cycle

Organizational Learning (II)
Argyris and Schon Actions to promote learning actually inhibit it Defenses: avoid sensitive issues, tiptoe around taboos Chris Argyris Donald Schon

Coping with Ambiguity and Complexity: Friendly Fire in Iraq
What you see what you expect -- and what you want US fighter pilots expected enemy helicopters Aerial combat is fighter pilots’ holy grail Pilots saw what they expected and what they wanted

Coping with ambiguity: conserve or change?
Advantages of relying on existing frames and routines Protect investment in learning them They make it easier to understand what’s happening and what to do about it …but we may misread the situation, take the wrong action, and fail to learn from our errors Change requires time and energy for learning new approaches but is necessary to developing new skills and capacities

Common Fallacies in Organizational Diagnosis
Blame people Bad attitudes, abrasive personalities, neurotic tendencies, stupidity or incompetence Blame the bureaucracy Organization (a) stifled by rules and red tape, or (b) lack clear goals, procedures and job descriptions Thirst for power Organizations are jungles filled with predators and prey

Conclusion Complexity, surprise, deception and ambiguity make organizations hard to understand and manage Narrow frames become rigid fallacies, blocking learning and effectiveness Better ideas and multiple perspectives enhance flexibility and effectiveness

Chapter 3 Getting Organized

Getting Organized Structural Assumptions
Origins of the Structural Perspective Structural Forms and Functions Basic Structural Tensions Vertical Coordination - Authority - Rules and Policies - Planning and Control Systems Lateral Coordination McDonald’s and Harvard: A Structural Odd Couple Structural Imperatives

Structural Assumptions
Achieve established goals and objectives Increase efficiency and performance via specialization and division of labor Appropriate forms of coordination and control Organizations work best when rationality prevails Structure must align with circumstances Problems arise from structural deficiencies

Origins of the Structural Perspective
Frederick Taylor – Scientific Management Efficiency, time and motion studies, etc. Max Weber – Bureaucracy Fixed division of labor Hierarchy of offices Performance rules Separate personal and official property and rights Personnel selected for technical qualifications Employment as primary occupation

Structural Forms and Functions
Blueprint for expectations and exchanges among internal and external players Design options are almost infinite Design needs to fit circumstances

Basic Structural Tensions
Differentiation: dividing work, division of labor Integration: coordinating efforts of different roles and units Criteria for differentiation: function, time, product, customer, place, process Suboptimization: units focus on local concerns, lose sight of big picture

Vertical coordination
Authority (the boss makes the decision) Rules and policies Planning and control systems Performance control (focus on results) vs. action planning (focus on process)

Lateral Coordination Meetings Task Forces Coordinating Roles
Matrix Structures Networks Strengths and Weaknesses of Lateral Strategies

McDonald’s and Harvard: A Structural Odd Couple
McDonald’s: clearer goals, more centralized, tighter performance controls Harvard: diffuse goals, highly decentralized, high autonomy for professors Why have two successful organizations developed such different structures?

Structural Imperatives
Size and Age Core Process Environment Strategy and Goals Information Technology People: Nature of Workforce

Conclusion Structural frame – understanding the social architecture of work Structure is more than red tape and bureaucracy Bad structure wastes resources, frustrates individuals, and undermines effectiveness Good structure empowers individuals and units to work together and achieve goals Differentiation and integration as the central structural challenge: how do we divide the work, and how do we coordinate once we divide? Structure depends on situation Simpler more stable  simpler, more hierarchical and centralized structure Changing, turbulent environments  more complex, flexible structure

Structure and Restructuring
Chapter 4 Structure and Restructuring

Structure and Restructuring
Structural Dilemmas Structural Configurations Generic Issues in Restructuring Why Restructure? Making Restructuring Work Three Case Examples

Structural Dilemmas Differentiation versus Integration
Gaps versus Overlaps Underuse versus Overload Lack of Clarity versus Lack of Creativity Excessive Autonomy versus Excessive Interdependence Too Loose versus Too Tight Goalless versus Goal bound Irresponsible versus Unresponsive

Structural Configuration
Mintzberg’s Fives Strategic apex Middle management Operating core Techno structure Support staff

Mintzberg’s Structural Configurations
Simple Structure Machine Bureaucracy Professional Bureaucracy Divisionalized Form Adhocracy

Helgesen’s Web of Inclusion
Emphasis on lateral relationships rather than hierarchy Leadership at the center rather than at the top Web builds from the center out through a network of interconnections

Generic Issues in Restructuring: each component exerts distinct pressures
Strategic apex: pushes for more alignment, centralization Middle managers try to protect autonomy and room to run their own unit Techno structure pushes for standardization, believes in measurement and monitoring Support staff prefers less hierarchy, more collaboration

Why Restructure? The environment shifts Technology changes
Organizations grow Leadership changes Troubled firms Impulsive firms Stagnant bureaucracies Headless giants

Making Restructuring Work: Three Case Examples
Citibank’s Back Room Kodak’s Black and White Division Beth Israel Hospital

Conclusion Organization’s structure represents its effort to align internal processes with its external environment while balancing structural dilemmas Mintzberg: structural configurations align with different tasks and environments Changes in environment pressure organization to realign structure In the short term, restructuring produces resistance, confusion, performance gaps Long run success depends on how well structure aligns with environment

Organizing Groups and Teams
Chapter 5 Organizing Groups and Teams

The Power of Teams Teams are vital to organizational performance
Transplant surgeon Peter Minnich: the team is as important as the surgeon High-performance commando team: fluid, lateral structure for planning, top-down structure for execution Top-performing teams need the right blueprint of roles and relationships

Organizing Groups and Teams
Tasks and Linkages in Small Groups Teamwork and Interdependence Determinants of Successful Teamwork Team Structure and Top Performance Saturn: The Story Behind the Story

Tasks and Linkages in Small Groups
Structural Options Situational Variables Influencing Structure What is our goal? What needs to be done? Who should do what? How should we make decisions? Who is in charge? How do we coordinate efforts?

Tasks and Linkages in Small Groups (II)
Situational Variables, con’t. What do individuals care about most? Time Quality Participation What are special skill and talents of members? What is the relationship between groups? How will we determine success?

Tasks and Linkages in Small Groups (III)
Basic Structural Configurations One Boss Dual Authority Simple Hierarchy Circle Network All Channel Network

Teamwork and Interdependence
Baseball Football Basketball

Determinants of Successful Teamwork
Determining an appropriate structural design Nature and degree of task interaction Geographic distribution of members Where is autonomy needed, given the team’s goals and objectives? Should structure be conglomerate, mechanistic, or organic? Task of management: fill out line-up card prepare game plan Influence flow

Team Structure and Top Performance
Six distinguishing characteristics of high-performing teams Shape purpose in response to a demand or opportunity Specific, measurable goals Manageable size Right mix of expertise Common commitment Collectively accountable

Saturn: The Story Behind the Story
Quality, Consumer Satisfaction, Customer Loyalty Employees granted authority Assembly done by teams – Wisdom of Teams Group Accountability

Conclusion Every group evolves a structure, but not always one that fits task and circumstances Hierarchy, top-down tend to work for simple, stable tasks When task or environment is more complex, structure needs to adapt Sports images provide a metaphor for structural options Vary the structure in response to change Few groups have flawless members; the right structure can make optimal use of available resources

People and Organizations
Chapter 6 People and Organizations

People and Organizations
Human Resource Assumptions Human Needs What Needs do People Have? Theory X and Theory Y Personality and Organization Human Capacity and the Changing Employment Contract Lean and Mean: More Benefits than Costs? Investing in People

Human Resource Assumptions
Organizations exist to serve human needs People and organizations need each other When the fit between individual and system is poor, one or both suffer A good fit benefits both

Human Needs The concept of “need” is controversial
Economists: people’s willingness to trade dissimilar items disproves usefulness of concept Psychologists: need, or motive is a useful way to talk about enduring preferences for some experiences compared to others Needs are a product of both nature and nurture Genes determine initial trajectory Experience and learning profoundly influence preferences

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Needs arrayed in a hierarchy Lower needs are “pre-potent” Higher needs become more important after lower are satisfied Maslow’s hierarchy: Self-actualization Esteem Belongingness, love Safety Physiological

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Workers are passive and lazy Prefer to be led Resist change Theory Y Management’s basis task is to ensure that workers meet their important needs while they work Either theory can be self-fulfilling prophesy

Argyris: Personality and Organization
Traditional management principles produce conflict between people and organizations Task specialization produces narrow, boring jobs that require few skills Directive leadership makes workers dependent and treats them like children Workers adapt to frustration: Withdraw – absenteeism or quitting Become passive, apathetic Resist top-down control through deception, featherbedding, or sabotage Climb the hierarchy Form groups (such as labor unions) Train children to believe work is unrewarding

Human Capacity and the Changing Employment Contract
Handy – Shamrock form Core group of managers Basic workforce – part-time or on shifts to increase organization’s flexibility Contractual fringe – temps, independent contractors Lean and mean (win by cutting costs): downsize, outsource, hire temps and contractors Invest in people (win with talent): build competent, well-trained work force Shift from production economy to information economy produces skill gaps

Conclusion Organizations need people and people need organizations, but the trick is to align their needs Dilemma: lean and mean vs. invest in people

Improving Human Resource Management
Chapter 7 Improving Human Resource Management

Google : get better people and treat them better = better performance
Google offers its employees: Up to $8,000/year in tuition reimbursement On-site perks include medical and dental facilities, oil change and bike repair, valet parking, free washers and dryers, and free breakfast, 11 gourmet restaurants Unlimited sick leave 27 days of paid time off after one year of employment Global Education Leave program enables employees to take a leave of absence to pursue further education for up to 5 years and $150,000 in reimbursement. Free shuttles equipped with Wi-Fi from locations around the Bay Area to headquarter offices. Classes on a variety of subjects from estate planning and home purchasing to foreign language lessons in French, Spanish, Japanese and Mandarin. (Source: Great Place to Work Institute, )

Strategies for Improving Human Resource Management
Develop and Implement a Human Resource Philosophy Hire the Right People Keep Employees Invest in Employees Empower Employees Promote Diversity Putting it all Together: TQM and NUMMI

Improving Human Resource Management (II)
Putting it all Together: TQM and NUMMI Getting There: Training and Organization Development Survey Feedback Evolution of OD

Build and Implement a Human Resource Philosophy
Develop a public statement of the organization’s human resource philosophy Build systems and practices to implement philosophy

Hire the Right People Know what you want and be selective
Hire people who bring the right skills and attitudes Hire those who fit the mold

Keep Employees Reward well and protect jobs Promote from within
Powerful performance incentive Increases trust and loyalty Capitalizes on knowledge and skills Reduces errors Increases the likelihood to think longer-term Share the Wealth: give workers a stake in organization’s success

Invest in Employees Invest in learning
Create opportunities for development

Empower Employees Provide Information and Support
Make performance data available and teach workers how to use them Encourage workers to think like owners Everyone gets a piece of the action Foster Autonomy and Participation Redesign Work Build Self-Managing Teams Promote Egalitarianism

Promote Diversity Develop explicit, consistent diversity philosophy, strategy Hold managers accountable

Putting it all Together: TQM and NUMMI
Total Quality Management High quality is cheaper than low quality People want to do good work Quality problems are cross-functional Top management is ultimately responsible for quality New United Motors Manufacturing, Inc.

Getting There: Training and Organization Development
Barriers to better human resource management Management reluctance Disrupts established patterns, relationships Lack of communication and interpersonal skills Training and OD to build capacity Group interventions: T-groups, large-group interventions (e.g., “Workout’ at GE) Survey feedback

Conclusion High-involvement management strategies
Strengthen employee-organization bond Pay well, share the benefits Job security Promote from within Training and development Empower and improve quality-of-work-life Participation, democracy, egalitarianism Job enrichment, teaming Promote diversity

Interpersonal and Group Dynamics
Chapter 8 Interpersonal and Group Dynamics

Interpersonal and Group Dynamics
Interpersonal Dynamics Emotional Intelligence Management Styles Group & Teams in Organizations

Interpersonal Dynamics
Managers spend much of their time in relationships Three recurrent questions regularly haunt managers: What is really happening in this relationship? Why do other people behave as they do? What can I do about it?

Interpersonal Dynamics (II)
Argyris and Schön’s theories for action Espoused theory: how individuals describe, explain, or predict their own behavior Theory-in-use: the program that governs an individual’s actions

Interpersonal Dynamics (III)
Argyris and Schön’s theories for action Model I Theory in use Model I Assumptions Problem is caused by others Unilateral diagnosis Get person to change Model II Assumptions Emphasize common goals Communicate openly Combine advocacy with inquiry The Perils of Self-Protection

Model I Theory-in-use Core values (governing variables)
Action strategies Consequences for relationships Consequences for learning Define and achieve your own goals Design and manage unilaterally You’re seen as defensive, inconsistent, selfish Self-sealing Maximize winning, minimize losing Own and control what’s relevant to you You generate defensiveness Single-loop learning Avoid negative feelings Protect yourself You reinforce mistrust, conformity, avoiding risk Private testing of assumptions Be rational Unilaterally protect others Key issues become undiscussable Unconscious collusion to avoid learning

Model I Assumptions Problems are caused by the other person
Since they caused the problem, get them to change If they refuse or defend, that proves they caused the problem If they resist, intensify the pressure, protect them (to avoid discomfort), or reject them If you don’t succeed, it’s their fault; you’re not responsible

Model II Assumptions Focus on common goals, mutual influence
Communicate openly, test beliefs publicly Combine advocacy with inquiry

Advocacy & Inquiry Figure 8-1: Advocacy and Inquiry. Advocacy Inquiry
High Low Assertive Integrative Passive Accommodating Advocacy Inquiry

Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence: awareness of self and others, able to deal with emotions and relationships (Salovey and Mayer) A Management Best-seller: Daniel Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence EI more important than IQ to managerial success Individuals with low EI and high IQ are dangerous in the workplace

Management Styles Lewin, Lippitt and White: autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire leadership Fleishman and Harris: initiating structure vs. consideration of others Myers-Briggs Inventory Introversion vs. extraversion Sensing vs. intuition Thinking vs. feeling Judging vs. perceiving

Management Styles (II)
“Big 5 Model” Extraversion (enjoying other people and seeking them out) Agreeableness (getting along with others) Conscientiousness (orderly, planful, hard-working) Neuroticism (difficulty controlling negative feelings) Openness to experience (preference for novelty and creativity)

Groups and Teams in Organizations
Informal Roles Informal Group Norms Interpersonal Conflict in Groups Leadership and Decision-Making in Groups

Informal roles Informal role: an unwritten, often unspoken expectation about how a particular individual will behave in the group Individuals prefer different roles: some prefer to be active and in control, others prefer to stay in the background Individuals who can’t find a comfortable role may withdraw or become troublemakers Individuals may compete over the same role (for example, two people who both want to run things), hindering group effectiveness

Informal group norms Informal norm: unwritten rule about what individuals have to do to be members in good standing Norms need to align with both the task and the preferences of group members Norms often develop unconsciously; groups often do better to discuss explicitly how they want to operate

Handling Interpersonal Conflict in Groups
Develop skills Agree on basics Search for interests in common Experiment Doubt your infallibility Treat conflict as a group responsibility

Leadership and Decision-making in Groups
How will we steer the group Leadership in the essential, but may be shared and fluid Leaders who overcontrol or understructure produce frustration, ineffectiveness

Summary Employees bring social and personal needs to the workplace
Individuals’ social skills or competencies are a critical element Though often frustrating, groups can be both satisfying and efficient

Power, Conflict, and Coalitions
Chapter 9 Power, Conflict, and Coalitions

Power, Conflict and Coalitions
Assumptions of the Political Frame Organizations as Coalitions Power and Decision-Making Authorities and Partisans Sources of Power Distribution of Power: Overbounded and Underbounded Systems Conflict in Organizations Moral Mazes: The Politics of Getting Ahead

Assumptions of the Political Frame
Organizations are coalitions Enduring differences among coalition members Allocation of scarce resources Scarce resources and differences make conflict the central dynamic which makes power the most important asset Goals and decisions arise from bargaining, negotiation and jockeying for position

Organizations as Coalitions
Coalitions rather than pyramids Organizational goals are multiple and sometimes conflicting because they reflect bargaining involving multiple players with divergent interests

Power and Decision-Making
Gamson: Authorities and partisans Authorities make binding decisions Agents of social control Seek to maintain authority; their position depends on it Partisans are subject to authorities’ decisions; they will support or question authority depending on decisions affect their interests Recipients of control from authorities Support authority when satisfied, but may challenge when not

Sources of Power Position power Control of rewards Coercive power
Information and expertise Reputation Personal power Alliances and networks Access and control of agenda Framing: control of meaning and symbols

Distribution of Power: Overbounded and Underbounded Systems
Overbounded: strong, top-down control, conflict is tightly-regulated (e.g., Iraq under Saddam Hussein) Underbounded: weak authority, chaotic decision-making, open conflict and power struggles (Iraq after invasion and collapse of old regime)

Conflict in Organizations
Conflict is natural and inevitable: organizations can have too much or too little Political frame focuses on strategy and tactics for dealing with conflict Forms of organizational conflict Hierarchical conflict Horizontal Cultural

Moral Mazes: The Politics of Getting Ahead
Getting ahead is a political process involving conflict for scarce resources Assessment of individual performance often depends on subjective judgments Does advancement depend on doing good work or doing what is politically correct? Organizations can’t eliminate politics, but they can influence the kind of politics they have

Conclusion The political frame sees a very different world from the traditional view of organizations Traditional: organizations are hierarchies, run by legitimate authorities who set goals and manage performance Political view: organizations are coalitions whose goals are determined by bargaining among multiple contenders Politics can be nasty and brutish, but constructive politics is possible and necessary for organizations to be effective

The Manager as a Politician
Chapter 10 The Manager as a Politician

The Manager as a Politician
Skills of the Manager as a Politician Ethics and politics

Skills of the Manager as a Politician
Agenda Setting (knowing what you want and how you’ll try to get it) Vision or objective Strategy for achieving the vision Mapping the Political Terrain Determine the channels of informal communication Identify principal agents of political influence Analyze possibilities for mobilizing internal and external players Anticipate counterstrategies that others are likely to employ

Drawing the political map
Frame the central issue – the key choice that people disagree about Identity the key players (those who are most likely to influence the outcome) Where does each player fall in terms of the key issue? How much power is each player likely to exert Example: Belgian bureaucracy Key issue: are automated records a good thing?

Power Interests TopManagement Techies Middle Managers Front-line
Figure 10-1: The Political Map as Seen by the “Techies” – Strong Support and Weak Opposition for Change High TopManagement Techies Power Middle Managers Front-line Officials Low Pro-Change Opposed to Change Interests

Power Interests Top Management Techies Front-line Middle Officials
Figure 10-2: The Real Political Map: a Battle Ground With Strong Players on Both Sides High Top Management Techies Middle Managers Front-line Officials Middle Managers Power Low Pro-Change Opposed to Change Interests

Skills of the Manager as a Politician (II)
Networking and Building Coalitions Identify relevant relationships Assess who might resist Develop relationships with potential opponents Persuade first, use more forceful methods only if necessary

Skills of the Manager as a Politician (III)
Bargaining and Negotiation Value Creating: look for joint gain, win-win solutions Value Claiming: try to maximize your own gains

Value Creating: Getting to Yes (Fisher and Ury)
Separate people from problem: “ deal with people as human beings, and the problem on its merits” Focus on interests, not positions Invent options for mutual gain Insist on objective criteria: standards of fairness for a good decision

Value Claiming: The Strategy of Conflict (Schelling)
Bargaining is a mixed-motive game (incentives to complete and collaborate)] Process of interdependent decisions Controlling other’s uncertainty gives power Emphasize threats, not sanctions Threats are only effective if credible Calculate the optimal level of threat: too much or too little can undermine your position

Morality and Politics Ethical criteria in bargaining and organizational politics Mutuality – are all parties operating under the same understanding of the rules? Generality – does a specific action follow a principle of moral conduct applicable to all comparable situations? Openness – are we willing to make our decisions public? Caring – does this action show care for the legitimate interests of others?

Conclusion Politics can be sordid and destructive, but can also be the vehicle for achieving noble purposes Managers need to develop the skills of constructive politicians: Fashion an agenda Map political terrain Networking and building coalitions Negotiating

Organizations as Political Arenas and Political Agents
Chapter 11 Organizations as Political Arenas and Political Agents

Organizations as Political Arenas and Political Agents
Organizations as Arenas Wal-Mart as agent and arena Ross Johnson Barbarians at the Gate Organizations as Political Agents Ecosystems I Ecosystems II Pfeffer and Salancik The External Control of Organizations

Organizations as Arenas
Arenas shape: Rules of the game Players Stakes Bottom-up Political Action Labor unions and civil rights movements Political Barriers to Control from the Top U.S. Department of Education scenario: initiatives often lost to political opposition despite new resources and top-down support

Organizations as Political Agents
Organizations exist in ecosystems Organizations depend on environment for resources support Organizations needs the skills of a politician: develop agenda, map environment, manage relationships with allies and competitors, negotiate Ecosystem “Organizational field” in which competitors and allies co-evolve

Ecosystems Business Ecosystems Public Policy Ecosystems
Apple  IBM  “Wintel” General Motors and General Electric Public Policy Ecosystems Federal Aviation Administration Schools Business-government ecosystems Pharmaceutical companies, physicians and government Fedex lobbying clout

Ecosystems II Society as Ecosystem Business, public and government
What is and should be the power relationship between organizations and society? Are organizations “instruments of market tyranny” or largely shaped by larger social and economic forces? Jihad vs. McWorld

Pfeffer and Salancik, The External Control of Organizations
Organizations are controlled more than they control their external environment Organizations are “other-directed” Struggle for autonomy and discretion in the face of constraint and external control Confront conflicting demands from multiple constituents Organizations’ understanding of environment is often distorted, imperfect Dilemma: alliances essential to gain influence, but reduce autonomy by increasing dependency and obligations

Conclusion Organizations are both arenas for internal politics and political agents with their own agendas, resources, and strategies Arenas house contests, shape ongoing interplay of interests and agendas Agents exist, compete and co-evolve in larger ecosystems (“organizational fields”)

Chapter 12: Organizational Symbols and Culture

Organizational Symbols and Culture
Symbolic Frame Core Assumptions Organizational Symbols Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences in Work-Related Values Organizations as Cultures

Core Assumptions of Symbolic Frame
Most important – not what happens, but what it means Activity and meaning are loosely coupled People create symbols to resolve confusion, find direction, anchor hope and belief Events and processes more important for what is expressed than what is produced Culture provides basic organizational glue

Organizational Symbols
Symbols reveal and communicate culture McDonald’s golden arches and legend of Ray Kroc Harvard’s myth, mystique and rituals Volvo France and Continental Airlines Myths: deeply-rooted narratives that explain, express and build cohesion Often rooted in origin legends (“how it all began”) Values: what an organization stands for and cares about

Organizational Symbols (II)
Vision: image of future rooted in core ideology Heroes and Heroines Icons and living logos who embody and model core values Stories and Fairy Tales Good stories convey information, morals, values and myths vividly, memorably, convincingly Ritual Repetitive, routinized activities that give structure and meaning to daily life Men’s hut and initiation rituals Ceremony Grand, infrequent symbolic occasions

Organizational Symbols III
Metaphor, humor,play “As if” role of symbols: indirect approach to issues that are too hard to approach head-on Metaphor: image to compress ambiguity and complexity into understandable, persuasive message Humor: way to illuminate and break frames Play: permits relaxing rules to explore alternatives, encourages experimentation and flexibility

Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences in Work-Related Values
Culture: “collective programming of the mind that distinguishes one human group from another” Dimensions of national culture: Power distance: how much inequality between bosses and subordinates? Uncertainty avoidance: comfort with ambiguity Individualism: how much value on the individual vs. group? Masculinity-femininity: how much pressure on males for career-success and workplace dominance?

Organizations as Culture
Organizations have cultures or are cultures? Definitions of culture: Schein: “pattern of shared basic assumptions that a groups has learned as it solved its problems…and that has worked well enough to be considered valid and taught to new members” “How we do things around here” Culture is both product and process Embodies accumulated wisdom Must be continually renewed and recreated as newcomers learn old ways and eventually become teachers Manager who understand culture better equipped to understand and influence organizations

Conclusion In contrast to traditional views emphasizing rationality and objectivity, the symbolic frame highlights the meta-rational and tribal aspects of contemporary organizations. Symbols help us make sense of ambiguous and confusing realities Culture as basic organizational glue, the “way we do things around here” Symbols embody and express organizational values, ideology

Organizational Culture in Action
Chapter 13 Organizational Culture in Action

Organizational Culture in Action
The Eagle Group’s Sources of Success Leading Principles

The Eagle Group’s Sources of Success
Why do some groups produce extraordinary results while others produce little or nothing? Play, spirit and culture are at the core of peak performance

Sources of cultural success I
How someone becomes a group member is important Diversity provides a team’s competitive advantage Examples, not command, holds a team together A specialized language fosters cohesion and commitment

Sources of cultural success (II)
Stories carry history and values and reinforce group identity Humor and play reduce tension and encourage creativity Ritual and ceremony lift spirits and reinforce values

Sources of cultural success (III)
Informal cultural players make contributions disproportionate to their formal roles Soul is the secret of success

Conclusion Symbolic perspectives questions traditional views on team building Right structure and people are important, but not sufficient The essence of high performance is spirit Banishing play, ceremony and myth would destroy teamwork, not create it Team building at its heart is a spiritual undertaking: peak performance emerges as a team discovers its soul

Organization as Theater
Chapter 14 Organization as Theater

Organization as Theater
Dramaturgical and Institutional Theory DiMaggio and Powell, “The Iron Cage Revisited…” Organizational Structure as Theater Organizational Process as Theater

Organizational Theater
Theater plays to both internal and external audiences A convincing dramaturgical performance reassures external constituents, builds confidence, keeps critics at bay Drama may have happy endings (like Polaris case) or tragedy (like Hurricane Katrina)

Dramaturgical and Institutional Theory
Dramaturgical theory: internal focus (organizational participants as players in a drama) Institutional theory: external focus on how organizations project images to external audiences “Institutionalized organizations” focus more on appearance than performance When goals are ambiguous and performance hard to measure (as in universities and many government agencies), organizations maintain stakeholder support by staging the right play, conforming to audience expectations of how the organization should operate

DiMaggio and Powell, “The Iron Cage Revisited…”
“Isomorphism” – process of becoming similar to other organizations in the same “organizational field” Coercive isomorphism – organizations become alike because law, regulation or stakeholders pressure them to do so Mimetic isomorphism – organizations become more alike by copying one another Normative isomorphism – organizations employing the same professionals become similar because the professionals have similar values and ideas

Organizational Structure as Theater
Structure as Stage design: an arrangement of lights, props and costumes Makes drama vivid and credible Reflects and expresses current values and myths Public schools reassure stakeholders if… The building and grounds look like a school Teachers are certified Curriculum mirrors society’s expectations Colleges judged by: Age, endowment, beauty of campus Faculty student ratio Faculty with degrees from elite institutions

Organizational Process as Theater
Activities (meetings, planning, performance appraisal, etc.) often fail to produce intended outcomes, yet persist because they help sustain organizational drama Scripts and stage markings: cue actors what to do and how to behave Opportunities for self-expression and forums for airing grievances Reassure audiences that organization is well-managed and important problems are being addressed

Organizational Process as Theater (II)
Meetings as “Garbage cans” Attract an unpredictable mix of problems looking for solutions, solutions looking for problems, and participants seeking opportunities for self-expression Planning as ceremony to maintain legitimacy and reinforce participants’ bonds Plans are symbols Plans become games Plans become excuses for interaction Plans become advertisements

Organizational Process as Theater (III)
Evaluations Often fail in intended goals of improving performance and identifying strengths and weaknesses Ceremony signals the organization is well-managed and cares about performance improvement Collective Bargaining Public face: intense, dramatic contest Private face: back-stage negotiation, collusion Power Exists in eye of beholder – you are powerful if others think you are May be attributed based on outcomes

Conclusion Organizations judged by appearance The right drama:
Provides a ceremonial stage Reassures stakeholders Maintains confidence and faith Drama serves powerful symbolic functions Engages actors in their performances Builds excitement, hope, sense of momentum

Integrating Frames for Effective Practice
Chapter 15 Integrating Frames for Effective Practice

Integrating Frames for Effective Practice
Life as Managers Know It Across Frames: Organizations as Multiple Realities Matching Frames to Situations Effective Managers and Organizations Managers’ Frame Preferences

Life as Managers Know It
Myth: Managers are rational, spent time planning, deciding and controlling Organized, in control, unruffled Reality Management life is hectic, frantic, constantly shifting Too busy to read or even think Rely on intuition and hunches for many of the most important decisions Hassled priests, modern muddlers, wheeler-dealers

Across Frames: Organizations as Multiple Realities
Four Interpretations of Organizational Processes Doctor Fights to Quit Maine Island

Organizations as Multiple Realities
Process Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic Strategic planning Create strategic direction Meeting to promote participation Arena to air conflict Ritual to reassure audiences Decision-making Rational process to get right answer Open process to build commit-ment Chance to gain or use power Ritual to build values, bonding Reorgani-zing Improve structure/ environment fit Balance needs and tasks Reallocate power, form new coalitions Image of accountabili-ty, respon-siveness

Process Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic Evaluating Allocate rewards, control performance Help people grow and develop Chance to exercise power Occasion to play roles in organiza-tional drama Approaching conflict Authorities resolve conflict Individuals confront conflict Bargaining, forcing, manipulating Develop shared values, meaning Goal setting Keep organization headed in right direction Keep people involved and informed Let people make their interests known Develop symbols, shared values

Process Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic Communica-tion Transmit facts, information Exchange information, needs, feelings Influence or manipulate others Tell stories Meetings Formal occasions to make decisions Informal occasions to involve, share feelings Competitive occasions to score points Sacred occasions to celebrate, transform culture Motivation Economic incentives Growth, self-actualization Coercion, manipulation, seduction Symbols, celebrations

Matching Frames to Situations
Choosing a Frame Commitment and motivation Technical quality Ambiguity and uncertainty Conflict and scarce resources Working from bottom up

Question If yes: If no: Table 15.2 Choosing a Frame
Are individual commitment and motivation essential? Human resource, symbolic Structural, political Is technical quality of decision important? Structural Human resource, political, symbolic Is there high level of ambiguity, uncertainty? Political, symbolic Structural, human resource Are conflict and scarce resource a significant factor? Are you working from the bottom up?

Effective Managers and Organizations
Characteristics of Excellent/Visionary Companies Embrace paradox Clear core identity Effective Senior Managers Highly complex jobs requiring diverse skills Political dimension is critical Effective middle managers Structural and human resource skills help performance, but political skills help you get ahead

Table 15.3 Characteristics of Excellent or Visionary Companies
Frame Peters & Waterman Collins & Porras Collins Structural Autonomy, entre-preneurship, bias for action; simple form, lean staff Clock building, not time telling; try a lot, keep what works Confront brutal facts; best in world; economic engine; technology accelerators; “flywheel”, not doom loop Human Resource Close to customer; productivity through people Home-grown management “Level 5 leadership”; first who, then what

Frame Peters & Waterman Collins & Porras Collins Political Symbolic
Table 15.3 (continued) Characteristics of Excellent or Visionary Companies Frame Peters & Waterman Collins & Porras Collins Political ******** ******* Symbolic Hands on, value-driven, loose-tight; stick to the knitting BHAGs; cultlike cultures; good enough never is; preserve the core, stimulate progress; more than profits Never lose faith; deeply passionate; culture of discipline

Table 15.4 Challenges in Managers’Jobs
Frame Kotter (1982) Lynn (1987) Luthans, Yodgetts, & Rosenkrantz (1988) Structural Keep on top of large, complex set of activities; set goals and policies under conditions of uncertainty Attain intellectual grasp of policy issues Communication (paperwork, etc.); traditional management (planning, goal-setting, controlling) Human resource Motivate, coordinate and control large, diverse group of subordinates Use personality to best advantage Human resource management (motivating, managing conflict, staffing, etc.)

Table 15.4 (Continued) Challenges in Managers’Jobs
Frame Kotter (1982) Lynn (1987) Luthans, Yodgetts, & Rosenkrantz (1988) Political Allocate scarce resources; get support from bosses and other constituents Exploit opportunities to achieve strategic gains Networking (politics, interacting with outsiders) Symbolic Develop credible strategic premises; identify and focus on activities that give meaning to employees

Manager’s Frame Preferences
Research shows ability to use multiple frames is consistently associated with effectiveness. Effectiveness as manager – structural frame is key Effectiveness as leader – political and symbolic frames are central

Conclusion Managers’ daily reality is messier, less rational, more conflict-filled than is often realized Choice of frame depends on circumstances Managers need multiple frames to survive

Reframing in Action – Opportunities and Perils
Chapter 16 Reframing in Action – Opportunities and Perils

Reframing in Action – Opportunities and Perils
Cindy Marshall: new manager with a big challenge Structural Scenario Human Resource Scenario Political Scenario Symbolic Scenario Benefits and Risks of Reframing Reframing for Newcomers and Outsiders

Cindy Marshall New manager with big challenge
High risk dilemma: looking weak vs. acting impetuously Each frame suggests distinct possibilities Reframing as tool for generating options Scenarios: story-lines for generating options for action Each frame can be effective or not, depending on skill and insight of individual

Structural Scenario Clarify goals
Attend to relationships between structure and environment Design and implement structure to fit circumstances Focus on task, facts, logic, not personality or emotion

Human Resource Scenario
People are at the heart of organization Respond to their needs and goals, and they’ll be committed and loyal in return Align needs of individuals and organization, serving best interests of both Support and empower people Show concern, listen to their aspirations Communicate warmth and concern Empower through participation and openness Give people resources and autonomy they need to do their jobs

Political Scenario Recognize political reality, deal with conflict
Scarce resources produce conflict over who gets what Know the players (individuals and interest groups) and what they want Build ties to key players and group leaders Build a power base and use power carefully Overplaying your hand makes you weaker Create arenas for negotiation and compromise Look for and emphasize common interests to unify your group Rally troops against outside enemies

Symbolic Scenario Most important part of leader’s job is inspiration
Give people something to believe in People get excited about a special place with unique identity where their work is important Be passionate about making organization the best of its kind, communicate your passion Use dramatic, visible symbols to involve people, communicate the mission Be visible, energetic Create slogans, hold rallies and celebrations, give awards, manage by walking around Study and use organizational culture Use heroes, stories, traditions as a base for build cohesive, meaningful culture Articulate a persuasive, exciting vision

Benefits and Risks of Reframing
Frames can be used as scenarios or scripts to generate options and guide action By choosing a new script, we can act in new ways and create new possibilities Choose the role and drama that works for you Each frame has distinctive advantages and risks

Frame Risks Frame Risks Structural
Ignore non-rational elements: irrational neglect of human, political and cultural elements Over-rely on authority and underrely on alternative sources of power Human Resource Blinded by romantic view of human nature Too optimistic about trust and win-win in high-conflict/high-scarcity situations

Frame Risks Frame Risks Political Symbolic
Becomes cynical, self-fulfilling prophesy that intensifies conflict, misses opportunities for rationality and collaboration You may be seen as amoral, scheming, selfish Symbolic Concepts are elusive Effectiveness heavily dependent on user’s art and skill Symbols may be employed as fluff, camouflage, manipulation Awkward use of symbols may produce embarrassment, ridicule

Reframing for Newcomers and Outsiders
Use of only one or two frames often leads to entrapment: inability to generate effective options in tough situations Risk is even higher for newcomers and outsiders (including members of groups that have historically been excluded) Newcomers and outsiders are less likely to get a second chance or the benefit of the doubt when they make mistakes

Conclusion Mangers can use the frames as scenarios, or scripts, to generate alternative approaches to challenging circumstances. Reframing is a complex skill that takes time and persistence to develop

Reframing Organizations, 3rd ed.

Chapter 17 Reframing Leadership

Reframing Leadership The Idea of Leadership The Context of Leadership
What Do We Know About Good Leadership? Gender and Leadership Reframing Leadership

Coping with leadership crisis: Queen Elizabeth II & Rudy Giuliani
In the face of Princess Diana’s death, the Queen stayed on vacation and issued short, tight-lipped statement She almost disappeared when constituents most wanted her to be present and reassuring Rudy Giuliani Went immediately to 9-11 scene and plunged in, at personal risk Took charge of disaster efforts Was continually visible: appeared on television, gave tours, etc.

The Idea of Leadership Leadership often viewed as panacea: fix for whatever is wrong in organization or society Leadership not the same thing as power Leaders expected to persuade, inspire, not coerce or manipulate Leadership is distinct from authority Authority produces obedience because legitimated to make certain decisions Leadership vs. management Leaders think long-term, look outside as well as in, influence beyond their formal jurisdiction, have political skills, emphasize vision and renewal,

The Context of Leadership
Leaders make things happen, but things also make leaders happen What leaders can do always influenced by the stage on which they play their role Leadership is a relationship, a subtle process of mutual influence Leaders are not independent actors: they both shape and are shaped by circumstances and their constituents Leadership is distinct from position – you can lead from anywhere

What Do We Know About Good Leadership?
One Best Way Good leaders have certain characteristics in common Contingency Theories Good leadership depends on the situation

One Best Way: Qualities of Highly Effective Leaders
Vision and focus Image of future Standards for performance Clear direction Passion Deep personal, emotional commitment to the work and the people who do it Ability to inspire trust and build relationships Honesty is the trait followers say they admire most in a leader

Blake & Mouton: The Managerial Grid

Contingency Theories Leadership varies by situation, but there is no consensus on the nature of the key situational variables and how they influence leadership Hersey/Blanchard “Situational Leadership” model is popular, but research support is weak

Hersey & Blanchard: Situational Leadership

Gender and Leadership Do Men and Women Lead Differently?
Karren Brady, Carly Fiorina, and Margaret Thatcher Do women have a “female advantage”? Research has found few consistent leadership differences between men and women Why the Glass Ceiling? Stereotypes linking leadership to maleness Women walk tightrope of conflicting expectations Discrimination Women pay a higher price Women may put higher premium on balancing work and family Women still do majority of housework and child-rearing in dual-career families Fast-track women less likely to marry, more likely to divorce than similar men

Structural Leadership
Effective Ineffective Leader Analyst, architect Petty tyrant Leadership process Analysis, design Management by detail and fiat

Effective structural leaders…
Do their homework Rethink relationship of strategy, structure, environment Focus on implementation Experiment, evaluate, adapt

Human Resource Leadership
Effective Ineffective Leader Catalyst, servant Weakling, pushover Leadership process Support, empowerment Abdication, indulgence

Effective human resource leaders…
Believe in people and communicate that belief Are visible and accessible Empower others

Political Leadership Effective Ineffective Leader Advocate, negotiator
Con artist, thug Leadership process Advocacy, coalition-building Manipulation, fraud

Effective political leaders …
Are clear about what they want and what they can get Assess distribution of power and interests Build linkages to key stakeholders Persuade first, negotiate second, and coerce only if necessary

Symbolic Leadership Effective Ineffective Leader Prophet, poet
Fanatic, fool Leadership process Inspiration, framing experience Mirage, smoke and mirrors

Effective symbolic leaders…
Lead by example Use symbols to capture attention Frame experience Communicate a vision Tell stories Study and use history

Conclusion Leadership is widely accepted as a cure for all organizational ills, but it is also widely misunderstood. Leadership is relational and contextual, distinct from power and position Each of the frames highlights significant possibilities for leadership Managers need to combine multiple frames into a comprehensive approach to leadership

Reframing Change: Training, Realigning, Negotiating and Grieving
Chapter 18 Reframing Change: Training, Realigning, Negotiating and Grieving

Reframing Change: Training, Realigning, Negotiating and Grieving
A Common Change Scenario: DDB Bank Reframing Organizational Change Change and Training Change and Realignment Change and Conflict Change and Loss Change Strategy Team Zebra: The Rest of the Story

A Common Change Scenario: Thomas Lo at DDB Bank
Profitable bank faced changing environment Thomas Lo recruited to improve service and innovate Lo introduced many changes, but six months later nothing was different Lo encountered lip service, passive resistance, but no overt conflict Familiar story: hopeful beginning, muddle middle, disappointing ending Change strategies that rely on only one or two frames usually fail

Table 18.1(a) Reframing Organizational Change
Frame Barriers to Change Essential Strategies Structural Loss of direction, clarity and stability; confusion, chaos Communicating, realigning, and renegotiating formal patterns and policies Human Resource Anxiety, uncertainty People feel incompetent and needy Training to develop new skills; Participation & involvement; Psychological support

Table 18.1(b) Reframing Organizational Change
Frame Barriers to Change Essential Strategies Political Disempowerment Conflict between winners & losers Create arenas for negotiating issues, forming new coalitions Symbolic Loss of meaning and purpose; clinging to the past Transition rituals; mourn past, celebrate future

Change and Training Change initiatives often fail because employees lack knowledge and skills People resist what they don’t understand, don’t know how to do, or don’t believe in Training, participation and support can increase understanding of why change is needed, as well as skills and confidence needed to implement

Change and Realignment
Structural change undermines existing patterns, creating ambiguity, confusion and resistance People don’t know how to get things done or who’s supposed to do what Change efforts need to anticipate structural issues, realign roles and relationships

Change and Conflict Change creates winners and losers
Winners support the change and fight for its implementation Losers resist, try to block change effort (and often succeed) Conflicts often are buried, where they smolder and become more unmanageable Successful change requires framing issues, building coalitions, and creating arenas where conflict can be surfaced and agreements negotiated

Change and Loss Loss of a cherished symbol produces loss – akin to losing a job or a loved one Change produces conflicting impulses: replay the past vs. plunge into the future Cultures create transition rituals to ease loss Ritual and ceremony are essential to successful change: celebrate or mourn the past and envision the future

Kotter: Stages of Effective Change
Create sense of urgency Pull together guiding team with need skills, credibility and connections Create uplifting vision and strategy Communicate vision and strategy through words, deeds, symbols Remove obstacles, empower people to move Create visible progress: early wins Persist when things get tough Nurture and shape new culture to support new ways

Reframing Kotter’s Change Model
Kotter stage Structural Human resource Political Symbolic Sense of urgency Involve, solicit input Network with key players Build power base Tell compelling story Build guiding team Coordina-tion strategy Team building Stack team with key players Put CEO on team Uplifting vision, strategy Implemen-tation plan Map political terrain Create vision rooted in past

Kotter stage Structural Human resource Political Symbolic Communi-cate through words, deeds, symbols Build structures to support change process Meetings to communi-cate, get feedback Create arenas Build alliances Kickoff ceremonies Visible leadership Remove obstacles, empower Change old structures Training, support, resources Public hangings Early wins Plan for short-term victories Do what it takes to get wins Celebrate early progress

Kotter stage Structural Human resource Political Symbolic Keep going when going gets tough Keep people on plan Revival meetings New cul-ture to support new ways Align structure to new culture Create “culture” team Broad involvement in creating new culture Mourn past Celebrate heroes Share stories

Team Zebra: The Rest of the Story
Top-down, Bottom-up Structural Design Learning and Training Areas for Venting Conflict Occasions for Letting Go and Celebrating Core values Encouraging rituals Anchoring vision Inventing ceremonies to keep spirit high

Conclusion Major organizational change inevitably generates four categories of issues Affects individuals’ ability to feel effective They need training, participation, support Change disrupts existing patterns Structure needs to be realigned Change creates conflict Need arenas to negotiate conflict, reach agreements Change creates loss of meaning for recipients Need transition rituals to mourn past and celebrate future

Reframing Ethics and Spirit
Chapter 19 Reframing Ethics and Spirit

Reframing Ethics and Spirit
Soul and Spirit in Organizations The Factory: Excellence and Authorship The Family: Caring and Love The Jungle: Justice and Power The Temple: Faith and Significance

Soul and Spirit in Organizations
Organizational soul: bedrock sense of identity, clarity about core ideology and values Core ideology emphasizing “more than profits” key to highly successful firms (Collins and Porras, 1994) Enron Rapid shift from pipelines to deal-making produced enormous growth -- for a while In the process, Enron lost a sense of core identity and values (“lots of smart people, but no wise people”) Merck Core purpose: not profit but “preserve and improve human life” Developed and gave away river blindness drug

Table 19.1: Reframing Ethics
Frame Structural Human Resource Political Symbolic Metaphor Organizational Ethic Leadership Contribution Factory Excellence Authorship Extended family Caring Love Jungle Justice Power Temple `Faith Significance

Conclusion Organizational ethics ultimately need to be rooted in soul
Modern organizations suffer a crisis of meaning and moral authority Leaders need to hold and model values like excellence, caring, justice, faith

Bringing It All Together
Chapter 20 Bringing It All Together

Bringing It All Together
Change and Leadership in Action The Reframing Process

Change and Leadership in Action
Robert F. Kennedy High School Dave King The History of the School First year Second year King’s First Week at Kennedy High The Friday Afternoon Meeting

Change and Leadership in Action (II)
Structural Frame: Issues and Options Human Resource Frame: Issues and Options Political Frame: Issues and Options Symbolic Frame: Issues and Options

The Reframing Process Reframing, like management and leadership, is much more art than science.

Reframing Organizations, 4th ed.

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