1. Interpersonal Skills and Group Dynamics
Denhardt, Chp. 11

2. Motivation: Pay and job satisfaction (Hertzberg)
Hygiene factors: pay, working conditions
Related to job dissatisfaction
Motivators: oppty for achievement, recognition and advancement
Related to job satisfaction

3. Maslow’s theory of human development: A hierarchy of needs
Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter
Safety and security
Social needs
Ego satisfaction/self-esteem
Self-actualization

4. Hawthorne studies
Purpose: determine effect of environmental variables on performance
Monitored effects of lighting on productivity
When results were surprising, added supervisory and social variables
Supposedly the results indicated that “a happy worker is a productive worker” (controversy whether studies actually said this)
Possibly it’s the other way – that better performance leads to job satisfaction
Third possibility: that job satisfaction and performance are associated only if rewards are based on performance

5. Reinforcement theory Positive reinforcement: reward follows behavior
behavior will repeat
Negative reinforcement: removal of something unpleasant follows behavior
Punishment follows behavior
behavior less likely to repeat
Nothing follows behavior
behavior may extinguish

6. Reinforcement principles
Response should promptly follow behavior
Patterns of response
Continuous (every time behavior occurs)
Partial (proportion of behaviors)
Frequency of response
Consistent: may learn quickly, then forget quickly when responses stop
Random: slower to learn, persists even when responses stop

7. Reinforcement – Applications to management
One-minute praising/one-minute reprimand (Blanchard and Johnson)
Follows the behavior closely
Is specific
Ends quickly, with a show of support
Pay-for-performance (PFP): assumptions
Must be able to accurately measure performance
PFP must influence individual decisions to remain with an organization
PFP must influence individual decisions to work harder
Employees are highly motivated by financial rewards

8. Motivation through goal setting
Process
Write it down
Goal must be specific
Means to reach goal must be clearly articulated
Set a deadline
Goal must be attainable
Goal should be challenging
Participatory approach
Subordinates might set more difficult goals than managers
If limits are placed process might generate cynicism

9. Group decisionmaking: Advantages
More information
Synergy - whole is greater than the sum of its parts
Loss of information when transmitted linearly
Communication patterns important
Centralized: better for simple problems?
Decentralized: better for complex issues?
Potentially less risk (?)
Do groups really make less risky decisions than persons working alone? (Denhardt is way out on the limb on this one)

10. Group decisionmaking: Disadvantages
Time constraint
Cost
Deferral of responsibility and accountability
Groupthink (opposite of synergy)
May be consequence of excessively cohesive groups, where people feel obliged to conform
Groups might make more risky decisions
Can breed cynicism if members feel constrained

11. Groups: Interpersonal dynamics
Personal animosities
Hidden agendas
Patterns of group development
Initial dependence on leader
May be followed by counterdependence - hostility to leader
Goal: interdependence
Types of rebellion
Flight / Fight / Pairing
Changing the composition of a homogeneous group
If badly outnumbered, “O’s” might be isolated or stereotyped

12. Groups: Decisionmaking techniques
Brainstorming: generate as many ideas or solutions as possible
Suspend judgment until done
Nominal group technique: avoid groupthink
Present problem
Members work alone to write solutions
Members present one solution at a time until everyone is heard
Members rank solutions on secret ballot, best to worst
Quality circles use various techniques
Group decisionmaking can breed dangerous (unified) cynicism and discontent if solutions are ignored or unacceptable to higher-ups

13. Vroom-Yetton-Jago Decisionmaking model
Key issue: When & to what extent should groups be involved in making decisions?
Continuum (Autocratic/Consultative/Group)
AI: Solve the problem yourself with information at hand
AII: Obtain information from subordinates, then decide (may or may not share problem)
CI: Share problem with subordinates individually, then decide
CII: Share problem with subordinates in a group meeting, then decide
GII: Share problem with subordinates and moderate their effort to achieve a solution

14. Vroom-Yetton-Jago decision points (factors to consider)
QR - Does problem have a quality requirement? (L/H)
CR - Is acceptance of decision by subordinates important? (L/H)
LI - Do you have enough info to make a high-quality decision? (Y/N)
ST - Is the problem structured? (Y/N)
CP - Would a non-consultative decision be accepted by subordinates? (Y/N)
GC - Do subordinates share the organizational goals that are intended to be attained? (Y/N)
CO - Will a solution lead to conflict between subordinates? (Y/N)
SI - Do subordinates have the necessary information to make a decision? (Y/N)

15. QR CR LI ST CP GC CO SI

16. Change Guidelines for facilitating change
Do people trust the person proposing the change?
Do people understand the implications of the change?
Have people been involved in developing the proposal?
Is management sensitive to the personal impacts of change?

17. Change technique: Organization Development (OD)
Focus on human obstacles to change
Main focus: personal misunderstandings and mistrust
Restrict patterns of behavior
Limit organizational capabilities
Makes it difficult to adapt to change

18. Goals of OD Unfreeze problematic relationship patterns
Replace them with better relationships
Freeze the changes in place
For persistence: individuals must relearn their theories of organizations - not just change their behavior

19. OD Process Use an external interventionist (change agent)
Change techniques
Team building/development
Intergroup problem solving/conflict resolution
Goal setting and planning (like MBO)
Sensitivity training
Issues
Why the change? To benefit the organization? Employees?
Will OD be perceived as a “sales” or “con job”? Is it?