1. Ch. 11 Cell Communication

2. Communication Methods
Cell-to-cell contact
Local signaling
Long distance signaling

3. Evolutionary Significance
Unicellular and multicellular cell communication have similarities
Yeast cells signal for sexual reproduction through signal transduction process.
A signal is received (for reproduction) and is then converted into a specific cellular response in a series of steps
Bacteria secrete molecules to sense density of own population.
Quorum Sensing (senses population densities-survival purpose- allows for coordinated behaviors) *paracrine= cells nearby

4. Yeast cells identify their mates by cell signaling.
Yeast Sexual Reproduction
 factor
Receptor
Exchange of mating factors.
Each cell type
secretes a
mating factor
that binds to
receptors on
the other cell
type. 1
Mating. Binding
of the factors to
    receptors
induces changes
     in the cells that
    lead to their
    fusion.
New a/ cell.
The nucleus of
the fused cell
includes all the
genes from the
a and a cells. 2 3
Yeast cell,
mating type a
mating type  
a/ a
Yeast cells identify their mates by cell signaling.

5. Some cell humor…

7. Cell-to-Cell Communications
Cell junctions directly connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells (juxtacrine= cells are touching or are next to)
Ex: cardiac cells for rhythmicity
Plasma membranes
Plasmodesmata
between plant cells
Gap junctions
between animal cells

8. Cell-to-Cell Communications
Cell-cell recognition
Surface receptors can give/send information
Ex: specific immune response

9. diffuses across synapse
Local Signaling
Adjacent cells are signaled.
Chemical messengers released
Ex: Neurotransmitters via neurons (synaptic signaling), animal growth factors (paracrine signaling= cells nearby)
(a) Paracrine signaling. A secreting cell acts on nearby target cells by discharging molecules of a local regulator (a growth factor, for example) into the extracellular fluid.
(b) Synaptic signaling. A nerve cell releases neurotransmitter molecules into a synapse, stimulating the target cell.
Local regulator
diffuses through
extracellular fluid
Target cell
Secretory
vesicle
Electrical signal
along nerve cell
triggers release of
neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
diffuses across synapse
is stimulated
Local signaling

10. Long Distance Signaling
Hormone travels
in bloodstream
to target cells
(c) Hormonal signaling. Specialized endocrine cells secrete hormones into body fluids, often the blood Hormones may reach virtually all body cells.
Long-distance signaling
Blood
vessel
Target
cell
Endocrine cell
Figure 11.4 C
Use of hormones
Endocrine (= within) signaling
Both plants and animals
use hormones (e.g. insulin,
pheromones)
Can affect many cells in
other parts of the body
Can be protein or steroid
Animals can also pass
signals electrically

12. Pathways of Communication?
Signal Transduction Pathways
Convert signals on a cell’s surface into cellular responses
Are similar in microbes and mammals, suggesting an early origin

13. Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway
3 Phases of Signal Transduction
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Receptor
Signal
molecule
Relay molecules in a signal transduction pathway
Plasma membrane
CYTOPLASM
Activation
of cellular
response
Figure 11.5
Reception 1
Transduction 2
Response 3

14. Step 1. Reception
Reception occurs when a signal molecule (ligand) binds to a receptor protein.
Receptor protein is on the cell surface
Ligand and receptor have a unique bonding

15. Step 2. Transduction
Signal initiated by conformational change of receptor protein
Signal is turned into a cellular response.
Signaling cascades relay signals to target
Multistep pathways can amplify a signal
Second messengers involved

16. Ex. A phosphorylation cascade
Signal molecule
Active
protein
kinase 1 2 3
Inactive
protein kinase
Cellular
response
Receptor P
ATP
ADP PP
Activated relay
molecule i
Phosphorylation cascade P 
A protein kinase is an enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein
A relay molecule
activates protein kinase 1. 1 2
Active protein kinase 1
transfers a phosphate from ATP
to an inactive molecule of
protein kinase 2, thus activating
this second kinase.
Active protein kinase 2
then catalyzes the phos-
phorylation (and activation) of
protein kinase 3. 3
Enzymes called protein
phosphatases (PP)
catalyze the removal of
the phosphate groups
from the proteins,
making them inactive
and available for reuse. 5
Finally, active protein
kinase 3 phosphorylates a
protein (pink) that brings
about the cell’s response to
the signal. 4
Figure 11.8

17. Transduction “second messenger” cyclic AMP (cAMP) helps to broadcast signals
ATP
GTP
cAMP
Protein
kinase A
Cellular responses
G-protein-linked
receptor
Adenylyl
cyclase
G protein
First messenger
(signal molecule
such as epinephrine)

18. 3 2 1
IP3 quickly diffuses through
the cytosol and binds to an IP3–
gated calcium channel in the ER
membrane, causing it to open. 4
The calcium ions
activate the next
protein in one or more
signaling pathways. 6
Calcium ions flow out of
the ER (down their con-
centration gradient), raising
the Ca2+ level in the cytosol. 5
DAG functions as
a second messenger
in other pathways.
Phospholipase C cleaves a
plasma membrane phospholipid
called PIP2 into DAG and IP3.
A signal molecule binds
to a receptor, leading to
activation of phospholipase C.
EXTRA-
CELLULAR
FLUID
Signal molecule
(first messenger)
G protein
G-protein-linked
receptor
Various
proteins
activated
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Phospholipase C
PIP2
IP3
(second messenger)
DAG
Cellular response
GTP
Ca2+
(second
messenger)
IP3-gated
calcium channel
Transduction “second messenger” Ca2+helps to broadcast signals for muscle cell contraction, secretion, cell division, etc.

19. Step 3: Response
Cell signaling leads to regulation of cytoplasmic activities or genetic activities (transcription)
Signaling pathways regulate a variety of cellular activities

20. Pathways can also regulate genes by activating transcription factors that turn genes on or off
Reception
Transduction
Response
mRNA
NUCLEUS
Gene P
Active
transcription
factor
Inactive
DNA
Phosphorylation
cascade
CYTOPLASM
Receptor
Growth factor
Figure 11.14

21. Types of Receptors
There are three main types of plasma membrane receptors:
G-protein-linked
Tyrosine kinases
Ion channel

22. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
most common, many diverse functions
Binds to energy-rich molecule GTP
(Guanosine-5'-triphosphate is a substrate for RNA synthesis during transcription or for DNA during replication)
GPCRs also functions in embryonic development & sensory reception
Most medicines todays impact the G protein pathway. Also, many diseases (cholera, botulism, whooping cough) produce toxins which interfere w/ pathway.

23. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs)
G-protein-linked
Receptor
Plasma Membrane
Enzyme
G-protein (inactive)
CYTOPLASM
Cellular response
Activated
enzyme
Activated Receptor
Signal molecule
Inactivate
GDP
GTP
P i

24. Receptor tyrosine kinases
Multiple pathway response
Enzymatic activity- a “kinase” is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups
Regulates/coordinates many cell functions like cell growth and cell reproduction
Abnormal receptor tyrosine kinases are linked to many types of cancer (ex. breast cancer)

25. Receptor tyrosine kinases
Signal molecule
Signal-binding site
CYTOPLASM
Tyrosines
Signal molecule
Helix in the
Membrane
Tyr
Dimer
Receptor tyrosine kinase proteins (inactive monomers) P
Cellular response 1
Inactive relay proteins
Activated relay proteins
Cellular response 2
Activated tyrosine-
kinase regions
(unphosphorylated
dimer)
Fully activated receptor
tyrosine-kinase
(phosphorylated
6 ATP ADP
Figure 11.7

26. Cellular response
Gate open
Gate close
Ligand-gated
ion channel receptor
Plasma Membrane
Signal molecule (ligand)
Figure 11.7
Gate closed
Ions
Ion channel receptors
Has an area that acts as a “gate” when the receptor changes shape
When ligand binds, channel can open or close.
Ex: neurotransmitters bind as ligands for ion channels
Some controlled by electrical signals instead of ligands- voltage-gated ion channel

27. *Intracellular Receptors
Target protein is INSIDE the cell
Must be hydrophobic molecule 1
The steroid
hormone testosterone
passes through the
plasma membrane.
Hormone
(testosterone)
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Receptor
protein
DNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
Plasma
membrane
Hormone-
receptor
complex
New protein
Figure 11.6
Testosterone binds
to a receptor protein
in the cytoplasm,
activating it. 2
The hormone-
receptor complex
enters the nucleus
and binds to specific
genes. 3
The bound protein
stimulates the
transcription of
the gene into mRNA. 4
The mRNA is
translated into a
specific protein. 5

28. Apoptosis Programmed cell death
Cell shrinks and forms lobes (blebbing)
Common during embryonic development
Ex. Mitochondrial membrane leaks proteins that promote apoptosis.

29. Why cell suicide?
Development and maintenance in animals (also in fungi and yeast)
Studied in worms (nematodes)
Development of nervous system, morphogenesis of hands, feet, paws (failure results in webbing)
Failure of apoptosis linked to degenerative diseases like Parkinsons and Alzheimers or cancers like melanoma

30. That’s about it!