1. The Payment of Wages Act, 1936

2. INTRODUCTION
The Payment of Wages Act, 1936 was passed to regulate the payment of wages to certain classes of persons employed in industry.
It is essentially meant for the benefit of the industrial employees not getting very high salaries and the provisions of the Act were enacted to safeguard their interest.
It also provides against irregularities in payment of wages and unauthorized deductions there form by the employers.
Further, it ensures payment of wages in a particular form and at regular intervals without unauthorized deductions.

3. DEFINITIONS
Wages [Sec. 2 (vi)]:- Means all remuneration (whether by way of salary, allowances, or otherwise) expressed in terms of money or capable of being so expressed which would, if the terms of employment, express or implied, were fulfilled, be payable to a person employed in respect of his employment or of work done in such employment, and includes- (a) Any remuneration payable under any award or settlement between the parties or order of a court; (b) Any remuneration to which the person employed is entitled in respect of overtime work or holidays or any leave period; (c) Any additional remuneration payable under the terms of employment (d) Any sum which by reason of the termination of employment of the person employed is payable under any law, contract or instrument which provides for the payment of such sum, whether with or without deductions, but does not provide for the time within which the payment is to be made; (e) Any sum to which the person employed is entitled under any scheme framed under any law for the time being in force,

4. DEFINITIONS But does not include-
(1) Any bonus (whether under a scheme of profit sharing or otherwise) which does not form part of the remuneration payable under the terms of employment or which is not payable under any award or settlement between the parties or order of a court;
(2) The value of any house-accommodation, or of the supply of light, water, medical attendance or other amenity or of any service excluded from the computation of wages by a general or special order of the State Government;
(3) Any contribution paid by the employer to any pension or provident fund, and the interest which may have accrued thereon;
(4) Any traveling allowance or the value of any traveling concession;
(5) Any sum paid to the employed person to defray special expenses entailed on him by the nature of his employment; or
(6) Any gratuity payable on the termination of employment in cases other than those specified in sub-clause.

5. PAYMENT OF WAGES (Sec. 3 to 6)
I. Responsibility for payment of wages [Section 3]. 
Every employer shall be responsible for the payment to persons employed by him of all wages required to be paid. 
In the case of the factory, manager of that factory shall be liable to pay the wages to employees employed by him. 
In the case of industrial or other establishments, persons responsibility of supervision shall be liable for the payment of the wage to employees employed by him. 
In the case of railways, a person nominated by the railway administration for specified area shall be liable for the payment of the wage to the employees. 
In the case of contractor, a person designated by such contractor who is directly under his charge shall be liable for the payment of the wage to the employees. If he fails to pay wages to employees, person who employed the employees shall be liable for the payment of the wages . 

6. PAYMENT OF WAGES (Sec. 3 to 6)
II. Fixation of wage-periods. [Section 4] Every person responsible for the payment of wages under section 3 shall fix periods in respect of which such wages shall be payable. No wage-period shall exceed one month. That means wage can be paid on daily, weekly, fortnightly (for every 15 days) and monthly only. Wage period for payment of wages to employees by employer should not exceed 30days i.e. one month according to this act. But wages cannot be paid for quarterly, half yearly or once in a year.

7. PAYMENT OF WAGES (Sec. 3 to 6)
Time Of Payment Of Wages. [Section 5]
In railway factory or industrial or other establishment, if there are less than 1000 employees, wages of employees should be paid before the expiry of the 7th day after the last day of the wage period. (ex:- wages should be paid on starting of present month within 7 days i.e. before 7th date if wage is paid on 1st in previous month ) 
In other railway factory or industrial or other establishment, if there are more than 1000 employees, wages of employees should be paid before the expiry of the 10th day after the last day of the wage period. (ex:- wages should be paid on starting of present month within 10 days i.e. before 10th date if wage is paid on 1st in previous month ) 
For employees of port area, mines, wharf or jetty, wages of employees should be paid before the expiry of the 7h day after the last day of the wage period. 

8. PAYMENT OF WAGES (Sec. 3 to 6)
If the employee is terminated or removed for the employment by the employer the wage of that employee should be paid within 2 days from the day on which he was removed or terminated. 
Illustration: if the employee was terminated or removed from the employment by the employer on 10th of this month, his wage should be paid within 2 days from the day on which he was removed or terminated, i.e. his/her wage should be paid by 12th date of this month and this date should not exceed.
[Sec 5 (3)]
With the consultation of the central government, state government having power and can change the person responsible for the payment of the wages in Railways, or person responsible to daily-rated workers in the Public Works Department of the Central Government or the State Government. 
[Sec 5 (4)] 
Except the payment of wage of the terminated employee, all the wages of the employees should be paid by their employer on the working day only. 

9. PAYMENT OF WAGES (Sec. 3 to 6)
WAGES TO BE PAID IN CURRENT COIN OR CURRENCY NOTES [Section 6] 
All the wages of the employees must be paid in form of currently using currency notes or coins or in both forms.

10. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
I. DEDUCTIONS FOR FINES [Sec.7 (2)(a) and 8]
(1) No fine shall be imposed on any employed person save in respect of such acts and omissions on his part as the employer, with the previous approval of the State Government or of the prescribed authority, may have specified by notice under sub-section (2).
(2) A notice specifying such acts and omissions shall be exhibited in the prescribed manner on the premises in which the employment is carried on or in the case of persons employed upon a railway (otherwise than in a factory), at the prescribed place or places.
(3) No fine shall be imposed on any employed person until he has been given an opportunity of showing cause against the fine, or otherwise than in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed for the imposition of fines.
(4) The total amount of fine which may be imposed in any one wage-period on any employed person shall not exceed an amount equal to three per cent of the wages payable to him in respect of that wage-period.
(5) No fine shall be imposed on any employed person who is under the age of fifteen years.
(6) No fine imposed on any employed person shall be recovered from him by installments or after the expiry of sixty days from the day on which it was imposed.

11. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
II. DEDUCTIONS FOR ABSENCE FROM DUTY [Sec.7 (2)(b) and 9] 
(1) Deductions may be made under clause (b) of sub-section (2) of section 7 only on account of the absence of an employed person from the place or places where, by the terms of his employment, he is required to work, such absence being for the whole or any part of the period during which he is so required to work.
(2) The amount of such deduction shall in no case bear to the wages payable to the employed person in respect of the wage-period for which the deduction is made in a larger proportion than the period for which he was absent bears to the total period, within such wage-period, during which by the terms of his employment, he was required to work: PROVIDED that, subject to any rules made in this behalf by the State Government, if ten or more employed persons acting in concert absent themselves without due notice (that is to say without giving the notice which is required under the terms of their contracts of employment) and without reasonable cause, such deduction from any such person may include such amount not exceeding his wages for eight days as may by any such terms be due to the employer in lieu of due notice.

12. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
DEDUCTIONS FOR DAMAGE OR LOSS [Sec.7 (2)(c), (m), (n) and (o) and 10]
(1) A deduction under clause (c) or clause (o) of sub-section (2) of section 7 shall not exceed the amount of the damage or loss caused to the employer by the neglect or default of the employed person.
(1A) A deduction shall not be made under clause (c) or clause (m) or clause (n) or clause (o) of sub-section (2) of section 7 until the employed person has been given an opportunity of showing cause against the deduction or otherwise than in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed for the making of such deduction.]
(2) All such deduction and all realizations thereof shall be recorded in a register to be kept by the person responsible for the payment of wages under section 3 in such form as may be prescribed.

13. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
IV. DEDUCTIONS FOR SERVICES RENDERED [Sec.7 (2) (d), (e) and 11]
A deduction under clause (d) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section 7 shall not be made from the wages of an employed person, unless the house-accommodation amenity or service has been accepted by him, as a term of employment or otherwise, and such deduction shall not exceed an amount equivalent to the value of the house-accommodation amenity or service supplied and, in the case of deduction under the said clause (e), shall be subject to such conditions as the State Government may impose.

14. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
V. DEDUCTIONS FOR RECOVERY OF ADVANCES [Sec.7 (2)(f) and 12] Deductions under clause (f) of sub-section (2) of section 7 shall be subject to the following conditions, namely: (a) Recovery of an advance of money given before employment began shall be made from the first payment of wages in respect of a complete wage-period, but no recovery shall be made of such advances given for traveling-expenses; recovery of an advance of money given after employment began shall be subject to such conditions as the State Government may impose. (b) Recovery of advances of wages not already earned shall be subject to any rules made by the State Government regulating the extent to which such advances may be given and the installments by which they may be recovered.

15. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
DEDUCTIONS FOR RECOVERY OF LOANS [Sec.7 (2)(fff) and 12-A]
Deductions for recovery of loans granted under clause (fff) of sub-section (2) of section 7 shall be subject to any rules made by the State Government regulating the extent to which such loans may be granted and the rate of interest payable thereon.

16. DEDUCTION FROM WAGES (Sec.7 to 13)
DEDUCTIONS FOR PAYMENTS TO CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES AND INSURANCE SCHEMES [Sec.7 (2)(j) and (k) and13]
(a) Deductions for payment to co-operative societies approved by the government or to a scheme of insurance maintained by the Indian Post Office [Sec. 7 (2) (j) and
(b) Deductions made with the written authorization of the person employed for the payment of any premium on his life insurance policy to the Life Corporation of India or for the purchase of securities of the government of India or of any appropriate Government or for being deposited in any Post Office Saving Bank in furtherance of any saving scheme of any such Government [Sec. 7 (2) (k)].
These deductions shall be subject to such conditions as the appropriate government may impose [Sec.13]

17. Other deductions Income tax PF LIC Welfare fund
Fidelity guarantee bonds
Acceptance of counterfeit coins or mutilated forged currency notes
Improper rebate or refund

18. AUTHORITIES
Inspector of factories also inspector under this act. sec(14)
Appointment of a person to hear claims for deductions, late payment .sec(15). That Person can be-
commissioner for workers compensation
Regional or assistant labor commissioner
Presiding officer of labor court or industrial tribunal

19. RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYER
Wage period not exceeding one month.
Wages by cash or cheque.
Pay wages on any working day.
Not to impose fines exceeding 3% of wages.
Recover fines with 90 days of offence.
To maintain register of wages, fines, deductions, advances.

20. The MINIMUM WAGES ACT, 1948

21. Objectives of the Act To provide minimum wages to the workers
working in organized sector
To stop exploitation of the workers
To empower the government to take steps for fixing minimum wages and to revising it
in a timely manner
To apply this law on most of the sections in
organized sector (scheduled employment)

22. Broad Features of the Act
[Sec 3]: The Act lays down the principles for fixation of
A minimum time rate of wages
A minimum piece rate
A guaranteed time rate
An overtime rate for different occupations, localities or classes of work and for adults, adolescents, children and apprentices
[Sec 4]: The minimum wages may consist of
A basic rate of wages and a cost of living of allowances
A basic rate of wages with or without the cost of living allowance and the cash value of the concessions in respect of essential commodities supplied at concessional rates

23. Short Title and Extent [Sec. 1]
This Act, the Minimum Wages Act, 1948 extends to the whole of India
This Act may be called the Minimum Wages Act, 1948

24. Who all are eligible? Permanent employees Contract employees
Casual workers
People on probation get fixed pay instead of minimum wages.
Trainees get stipend and not minimum wages

25. Fixing of minimum rate of wages [Sec. 3]
The Appropriate Government:
Shall fix minimum rates of wages for an employment specified in Part I or Part II of Schedule & added by notification in official gazette
May fix rates for a part of the state or for any specific class or classes instead of fixing minimum rate of wages for whole state
Shall review and revise at intervals not exceeding 5 years the minimum rates of wages

26. Different Minimum Wages May Be Fixed By The Government For:
Different employments (specified in the schedule)
Different classes (e.g. skilled, unskilled, semis skilled, etc.) of work in the same employments
Adults, adolescents, children and apprentices
Different localities

27. Segregation By the hour By the day By the month
Minimum rates of wages may be fixed by any one or more of the following wage periods, namely:
By the hour
By the day
By the month
By such other larger wage period
as may be prescribed; and where such rates are fixed by the day or by the month, the manner of calculating wages for a month or for a day, as the case may be, may be indicated

28. Different Minimum Wages May Be Fixed By The Government May consist of [Sec. 4]
Basic + Special Allowance (Which varies with the cost of living index)
Basic + Cash value of concessional supply of materials like food, clothes, etc
An all inclusive rate which includes Basic + Cost of living Allowance + Cash value of concessional supply of materials

29. Fixing Minimum Rates of Wages [Sec. 5]
Publish its proposals in the official gazette asking
comments from the affected parties
Constitute committees/sub committees for the
purpose.
The committees/sub-committees and advisory
boards constituted by the Government consist of
equal number of members of :
Employers
Employees, and
Independent persons

30. Fixation of minimum wages
Recommendation of Advisory Board for different class [unskilled, skilled, Clerk, Supervisor]
Publish recommendations in National Publications [for public comments/representations from Trade Unions etc.]
Hearing of the Representatives etc
Notification of Minimum wages

31. Central Advisory Board [Sec.8]
Appointed by appropriate government
To co-ordinate the work of committees and
sub committees appointed under Section 5
Central Advisory Board [Sec.8]
To advise the Central and State Governments in fixation and revision of minimum rates of wages
To co-ordinate the work of the Advisory
Boards

32. Composition of Committee. [Sec. 9]
Each of the committee, sub-committee and the Advisory Board shall consist of:
a. persons to be nominated by the appropriate Government
b. representing the employers and employees in the scheduled employments who shall be equal in number and
c. independent persons not exceeding one-third of its total number of members: one of such independent persons shall be appointed the Chairman by the appropriate Government.

33. Correction of Errors [Sec. 10]
By appropriate Government at any time
By notification in the Official Gazette
Correct clerical or arithmetical mistakes or errors arising from and accidental slip or omission.
Every such notification shall be placed before the Advisory Board for information.

34. Wages in Kind [Sec. 11] Minimum wages shall be paid in cash.
The appropriate govt. may authorize, where there has been a custom of payment in this manner, payment of minimum wages either wholly or partly in kind
The appropriate govt. may authorize supply of essential commodities at concessional rates

35. Payment of minimum rate of wages [Sec. 12]
The Minimum Wages has to be paid without any deductions other than Statutory Deductions.
Payment of wages less than minimum wages on the ground of less performance or output is illegal

36. Normal working hours [Sec. 13]
For an Adult Worker working in Factories:
Number of Working Hours should not exceed 48 Hours in a week with a weekly Holiday
The Daily Hours should not exceed more than 9 Hours with 1 Hour Rest Interval
Provision of Compensatory Holiday/ Overtime Wages if working on holiday

37. Overtime wages [Sec. 14]
If the person has worked for more than 48 hours in a week then, the excess hours worked will be treated as Overtime
Overtime wage rate will be twice of the normal wage rate
Wages for a person who has worked less than normal working hours [Sec. 15]
Employer could not provide the activities of the job then, the employee is entitled to receive full salary
Employee has not worked due to his unwillingness then, the employee is not entitled to receive full salary

38. Records to be maintained [sec. 18]
The Registers should contain the following particulars-
(i) particulars of employed persons
(ii) the work performed by them
(iii) the wages paid to them
(iv) the receipts given by them

39. Claims [Sec. 20]
A Labour Commissioner or any other appointed authority is authorized to hear claims regarding non-payment of minimum wages
Any aggrieved person may apply to the authority for settling his claims within 6 months

40. Contracting out [Sec. 25]
Any contract or agreement, whether made before or after the commencement of this Act, whereby an employee either relinquishes or reduces his right to a minimum rate of wages or any privilege or concession accruing to him under this Act shall be null and void so far as it purports to reduce the minimum rate of wages fixed under this Act.

41. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANIZATION

42. INTRODUCTION Established in 1919 as a part of league of nations.
Only international body that survived even after 2nd world war.
Becomes specialized agency of U.N.’s in 1946.
Aims at world peace through social justice.
India became original signatory member in 1919.
Draws attention on various problems like: working conditions, unemployment, industrial accidents, diseases, problem of women & young persons, children etc.

43. WHAT ILO DOES
The ILO formulates international labour standards. These standards take the form of Conventions and Recommendations, which set minimum standards in the field of fundamental labour rights: freedom of association, the right to organize, the right to collective bargaining, the abolition of forced labour, equality of opportunity and treatment, as well as other standards addressing conditions spanning across the entire spectrum of work-related issues.

44. HISTORY The ILO was established as an agency of the League of Nations
VanDaele, (2005) argues that in 1919 a pioneering generation of scholars, social policy experts, and politicians designed an unprecedented international organizational framework for labour politics.
The founding fathers of the ILO had made great development in social thought and action before 1919

45. How ILO came into being
The International Labour Organization (ILO) was founded, along with the League of Nations, by the Treaty of Versailles on 11 April 1919.
ILO was created in response to the consciousness that followed the First World War at the Peace Conference, which convened first in Paris and then in Versailles.

46. ILO was also based on political and economic considerations.
The ILO was founded primarily in response to humanitarian concern over the condition of workers who were being exploited with no consideration for their health, their family lives or their professional and social advancement.
ILO was also based on political and economic considerations.
These ideas were reflected in the ILO Constitution.

47. PRINCIPLES OF ILO labour is not a commodity;
freedom of expression and of association are essential to sustained progress;
poverty anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere;

48. OBJECTIVES OF ILO Full employment & raising standard of living
Ensure employment, in which workers should get satisfaction
Facilities for training & transfer of labour-migration for employment & settlement
Policies with wages, hours & condition of work
Effective recognition of the right of collective bargaining
Protection of life & health of workers
Provision for child welfare & maternity protection
Provision for adequate nutrition, housing
Assurance of equality of education & vocational opportunity.

49. MEMBERSHIP OF ILO
Any member of UN can become member of ILO by accepting the obligation of its constitution
Other states can also become member of ILO if 2/3 of the delegates vote
Membership of UN doesn’t mean Membership of ILO
As of 2015, the ILO has 186 state members
Withdrawal of membership is also permitted by giving a notice to the Director General of ILO ( it takes almost 2 yrs from date of receipt)

50. FUNCTIONS OF ILO
It passes conventions & makes recommendations on labor matters for the members to ratify
Expert advice for improving labor conditions
Carry out research on labor problems & publish it
Trains people in solving labor problems
Organizes regional conferences every year

51. SCOPE OF ILO Manpower organisation & Vocational training
Migrant workers
Women workers
Child workers
Social security
Conditions of work
Health, safety & welfare
Other activities- Promotion of handicraft & small industries, worker’s education programes.

52. Tripartite structure of the ILO
The ILO has a tripartite structure unique in the United Nations system, in which employers’ and workers’ representatives – the “social partners” – have an equal voice with those of governments in shaping its policies and programmes.
Workers
Governments
Employers
ILO

53. Structure of ILO International Labour Conference (ILC) Governing Body
office

54. International Labour Conference (ILC)
Policy making/ legislative wing of ILO
Holds session once in a year
ILC elect governing body
Meetings/sessions are attended by 4 delegates
- 2 from govt. (Generally Cabinet Ministers)
- 1 representative of employee
- 1 representative of employer
Each delegate is accompanied by advisor not exceeding 2 in number
Non- govt. delegates are chosen by govt.

55. International Labour Conference (ILC)
Functions of ILC:
Formulate international standards (Conventions & recommendations)
Decide expenditure budget
To make amendments
Consider labour problems & assist solution
Select once in 3 years members of governing body
Elect president

56. Governing Body It is executive wing of ILO It is a political body
Implements decisions of ILC with the help of International labour office
It consist of 56 titular members
- 28 govt.
-14 employer
-14 employee
Further, it consist of 66 deputy members
-28 govt.
-19 employer
-19 employee

57. Governing Body
10 of the titular govt. seats are permanently held by states of chief industrial importance (Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, U.K.,U.S., The Russian Federation)
Generally it meets thrice in a year (March, June, November)
Members are elected by ILC every 3 years

58. Governing Body Elects director-general after every 5 year
Decides agendas for ILC
Scrutinize the budget
Follow up recommendations & conventions of ILC

59. International Labour Office
It is a focal point for activities of International Labour Organization under the supervision of Governing Body
It is headed by Director-General
Its headquarter is at Geneva
Office employs 2700 officials from over 150 nations
Office also contains a research & documentation centre
It is responsible to collect & distribute information of labour & social problems

60. INTERNATIONAL LABOUR STANDARDS (ILS)
Subjects addressed by the ILO’s ILS
Wages
Working time
Occupational safety and health
Social security
Maternity protection
Social policy
Migrant workers
Seafarers
Fishers
Dock workers
Indigenous and tribal peoples
Other specific categories of workers
Freedom of association
Collective bargaining
Forced labour
Child labour
Equality of opportunity and treatment
Tripartite consultation
Labour administration
Labour inspection
Employment policy
Employment promotion
Vocational guidance and training
Employment security

61. WHAT ARE INTERNATIONAL LABOUR STANDARDS?
International labour standards are legal instruments drawn up by the ILO’s constituents (governments, employers and workers) which set out basic principles and rights at work.
ILS are divided into:
CONVENTIONS
These are legally binding international treaties that are subject to ratification by member States.
RECOMMENDATIONS
These serve as non-binding guidelines.
They can also be autonomous, namely not linked a Convention.
In many cases, a Convention lays down the basic principles to be implemented by ratifying countries, while a related Recommendation supplements the Convention by providing more detailed guidelines on its implementation.
Binding means mandatory as soon as a country has ratified a Convention and integrated it into national law.

62. Global HRM
HRM issues & problems arising from internationalization of business & the HRM Strategies, policies & practices which firm pursue in response to the internationalization process

63. Objectives of global HRM
To avoid culture shocks
To avoid regional disparities
Remain competitive throughout the world

64. Approches to global HRM
Ethnocentric approach
Polycentric approach
Geocentric approach
Ch 1

65. Ethnocentric approach
All key management positions are filled by parent – country nationals.
One’s own culture is superior
Overlooks important cultural factors
Host country lacks qualified professionals
Maintain a unified corporate culture
Create value by transferring core competencies
Limits advancement opportunities for host country nationals
Leads to resentment, lower productivity, and high turnover in employees.
E.g.: Procter & Gamble, Toyota and Matushita
Ch 1

66. Polycentric approach Decentralized control
Business Units in different countries have autonomy from home office, like a local Co.
No standard forms or procedures
Recruits host country nationals to manage subsidiaries, while parent country nationals occupy key positions at corporate HQ.
Firm is less likely to suffer from cultural myopia.
Less expensive to implement
Host country nationals have limited opportunities to gain experience outside their own countries
Gap due to language barriers, cultural differences may isolate corporate HQ from foreign subsidieries.
Ch 1

67. Geocentric approach
It seeks the best people for key jobs, throughout the organization, regardless of nationality.
Hybrid of Ethno and Poly
Based on informed knowledge of home and host countries.
Enables firms to make best use of its HR
Helps the firm to build a cadre of international executives, who feel at home working in No. of countries.
Helps building a strong unifying corporate culture and informal management network.
Reduces cultural myopia
Enhance local responsiveness
Ch 1

68.  DIFFERENCE BETTWEN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT & HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
1) It deals with a very broader perspective It deals with the very narrow perspective – looks only for the domestic country HR
2) It considers the global laws prevailing across the world. It considers the laws prevailing in the country where company is having its headquarters.
3) More involvement in employee’s lives happens There are standard policies for every employees working in the country.
4) External influences & factors affect the company. There are not much of external influences affecting to the company.
5) Work force i.e. people from different culture works together. Generally, people from the home country works.

69. 6) There is a risk factor involved i. e. Terrorism, crisis, etc
6) There is a risk factor involved i.e. Terrorism, crisis, etc. A minimal of risk is involved as compared to international perspective.
7)There is a complexity involved in handling different people from different countries. It is relatively easy to handle the employees as they belong to same country.
8) Attitudes of senior management people differ as it involves dealing globally. Attitudes generally tend to be the same with all employees.
9) Involvement of different cultures do affect the organization’s cultureAs employees are generally from same country, adoption of culture is very feasible.
10) IHRM also includes all functions of HR but to carry them out the techniques and methods are different. There is a standard technique and method to carry out the HR functions in organization.

70. Challenges in global HR
Managing international assignments
Employee & family adjustment
Culture
Language and communication

71. International staffing
PCN’s
HCN’s
TCN’s

72. Expatriates
Meaning
Advantages (enhanced coordination, information gathering, managerial skill development)
Causes for failure (personal problems, cultural differences, )