1. Early Societies in South Asia
Chapter 4
Early Societies in South Asia

2. Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

3. Foundations of Harappan Society
The Indus River
Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
Major society built by Dravidian peoples, BCE
Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of poultry
Decline after 1900 BCE
Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River)
70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

4. Mohenjo-Daro Ruins Population c. 40,000 Regional center
Layout, architecture suggests public purpose
Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage
Standardized weights evident throughout region
Specialized labor
Trade

5. Harapan Society and Culture
Evidence of social stratification
Dwelling size, decoration
Harappan Civilization: matriarchal?
Influence on later Indian culture
Goddesses of fertility
Possible east/west distinctions

6. Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization
Reasons for disappearance unclear
Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil
Earthquakes?
Flooding?
Evidence of unburied dead
Disappearance by 1500 BCE

7. The Aryan “Invasion” Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north
Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of Harappa
Color Bias
Socio-Economic Implications
Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military conquest

8. The Early Aryans Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle
Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later
Religious and Literary works: The Vedas
Sanskrit: sacred tongue
Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali
Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda
1,028 hymms to gods

9. The Vedic Age
Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”)
Aryans fighting Dravidians
Also Aryans fighting each other
Chiefdoms: Rajas
Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south
Development of iron metallurgy
Increasing reliance on agriculture
Tribal connections evolve into political structures

10. Varna: The Caste System
Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians
Brahmin, Priest
Kshatriya, Warrior
Vaishya, Merchant
Sudra, Commoner
Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”
Jati subsystem of castes
Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

11. Brahmins from Bengal

12. Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society
“rule of the father”
Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu
Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy?
Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line

13. Sati (“Suttee”)

14. Aryan Religion Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god
Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods
Role of Brahmins important
C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial cults
Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

15. Teachings of the Upanishads
Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions
Composed BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE
Brahman: the Universal Soul
Samsara: reincarnation
Karma: accounting for incarnations
Moksha: mystical ecstacy
Relationship to system of Varna