1. Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases & Salts
Unit 6
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions I: Acids, Bases & Salts

2. Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Acids and Bases
Aqueous acidic solutions have the following properties:
They have a sour taste.
They change the colors of many indicators.
Acids turn blue litmus to red.
Acids turn bromothymol blue from blue to yellow.
They react with metals to generate hydrogen, H2(g).
Bromothymol blue is yellow in acidic solution and blue in basic solution

3. Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Acids and Bases
They react with metal oxides and hydroxides to form salts and water.
HCl (aq) CaO(s)  CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
They react with salts of weaker acids to form the weaker acid and the salt of the stronger acid.
3HCl(aq) + Na3PO4 (aq)  H3PO4 (aq) + 3NaCl (aq)
Acidic aqueous solutions conduct electricity.

4. Properties of Aqueous Solutions of Acids and Bases
Aqueous basic solutions have the following properties:
They have a bitter taste.
They have a slippery feeling.
They change the colors of many indicators
Bases turn red litmus to blue.
Bases turn bromothymol blue from yellow to blue.
They react with acids to form salts and water.
Aqueous basic solutions conduct electricity.

5. The Arrhenius Theory
Acids are substances that contain hydrogen and produce H+ in aqueous solutions.
Two examples of substances that behave as Arrhenius acids:

6. The Arrhenius Theory
Bases are substances that contain the hydroxyl group (–OH) and produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous solutions.
Two examples of substances that behave as Arrhenius bases:

7. The Arrhenius Theory
Although Arrhenius described H+ ions in water as bare ions (protons) they really exist as hydronium ions, H3O+
It is this hydronium ion that gives aqueous solutions of acids the characteristic acidic properties

8. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
An acid is a proton donor (H+).
A base is a proton acceptor.
Two examples to illustrate this concept:
In the Arrhenius definition, NH3 would not be classified as a base.

9. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
Acid-base reactions are the transfer of a proton from an acid to a base.
Note that coordinate covalent bonds are often made in these acid-base reactions.

10. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
An important part of BrØnsted-Lowry acid-base theory is the idea of conjugate acid-base pairs.
Two species that differ by a proton are called acid-base conjugate pairs.
Conjugate Base is what the acid becomes when it has lost an H+ ion
Conjugate Acid is what the base becomes what it has accepted an H+ ion

11. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
Example: HNO H2O  H3O NO3-
Identify the reactant acid and base.
You do it!
Find the species that differs from the acid by a proton, that is the conjugate base.
Find the species that differs from the base by a proton, that is the conjugate acid.
HNO3 is the acid, conjugate base is NO3-
H2O is the base, conjugate acid is H3O+

12. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
The major differences between Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories.
The reaction does not have to occur in an aqueous solution.
Bases are not required to be hydroxides.

13. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
An important concept in BrØnsted-Lowry theory involves the relative strengths of acid-base pairs.
Weak acids have strong conjugate bases.
Weak bases have strong conjugate acids.
The weaker the acid or base, the stronger the conjugate partner.
The reason why a weak acid is weak is because the conjugate base is so strong it reforms the original acid.
Similarly for weak bases.

14. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
The 2-way arrows implies a reversible reaction and hence indicates that ammonia is a weak base
Since NH3 is a weak base, NH4+ must be a strong acid.
NH4+ gives up H+ to reform NH3.
Compare that to
NaOH  Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
Na+ must be a weak acid or it would recombine to form NaOH
Remember NaOH ionizes 100%.
NaOH is a strong base.

15. The BrØnsted-Lowry Theory
Amines are weak bases that behave similar to ammonia.
The functional group for amines is an -NH2 group attached to other organic groups.

16. The Autoionization of Water
Water can be either an acid or base in Bronsted-Lowry theory.
Reaction with ammonia it acts as an acid:
Reaction with HF it acts as a base:

17. The Autoionization of Water
Whether water acts as an acid or base depends on the other species present
Consequently, water can react with itself.
This reaction is called autoionization.
One water molecule acts as a base and the other as an acid.

18. The Autoionization of Water
Water does not do this extensively.
[H3O+] = [OH-]  1.0 x 10-7 M
Autoionization is the basis of the pH scale
Water is said to be amphiprotic
It can both donate and accept protons

19. Amphoterism Other species can behave as both acids and bases.
are called amphoteric.
(amiphiprotic behaviour describes the cases in which substances exhibit amphoterism by accepting or donating a proton).
Examples: some insoluble metal hydroxides
Zn and Al hydroxides

20. Amphoterism Zn(OH)2 behaves as a base in presence of strong acids.
Reacts with nitric acid to form a normal salt (contains no ionizable H atoms or OH groups)
Molecular equation
Total ionic equation
Net ionic equation

21. Amphoterism Zn(OH)2 behaves as an acid in presence of strong bases.
Molecular equation
Zn(OH) KOH K2Zn(OH)4
Zn(OH)2 is insoluble until it reacts with KOH
Net ionic equation

22. Strengths of Acids The easy of ionization of binary acids depends on:
Ease of breaking H-X bonds
The stability of the resulting ions
For binary acids, acid strength increases with decreasing H-X bond strength.
For example, the hydrohalic binary acids
Bond strength has this periodic trend.
HF >> HCl > HBr > HI
Acid strength has the reverse trend.
HF << HCl < HBr < HI

23. Strengths of Acids The same trend applies to the VIA hydrides.
Their bond strength has this trend.
H2O >> H2S > H2Se > H2Te
The acid strength is the reverse trend.
H2O << H2S < H2Se < H2Te

24. Strengths of Acids
In dilute aqueous solutions, HCl, HBr and HI are completely ionized and all show the same apparent strength
Water is sufficiently basic to mask the differences in acid strength of the hydrohalic acids.
Referred to as the leveling effect
The strongest acid that can exist in water is H3O+.
Acids that are stronger than H3O+ merely react with water to produce H3O+.
Consequently all strong soluble acids have the same strength in water
HI + H2O  H3O+ + I-
essentially 100%

25. Strengths of Acids
HBr, which should be a weaker acid, has the same strength in water as HI.
HBr + H2O  H3O+ + Br-
essentially 100%
Acid strength differences for strong acids can only be distinguished in nonaqueous solutions like acetic acid, acetone, etc.

26. it is possible to construct a relative ranking of acid and base strengths (and their conjugate partners.)

27. Strengths of Acids
The strongest acid that can exist in aqueous solution is H3O+.
HCl + H2O  H3O+ + Cl-
HCl is strong enough that it forces water to accept H+.
All acids stronger than H3O+ react completely with water to form H3O+ and their conjugate base partner.
The strongest base that can exist in aqueous solution is OH-.
NH2- + H2O  NH3 + OH-
NH2- is strong enough to remove H+ from water.
Bases stronger than OH- react completely with water to form OH- and their conjugate base partner.
The reason that stronger acids and bases cannot exist in water is that water is amphiprotic.

28. Strengths of Acids Acids containing 3 or more elements
Ternary acids are hydroxides of nonmetals that produce H3O+ in water.
Consist of H, O, and a nonmetal.
HClO H3PO4

29. Strengths of Acids HClO4 H3PO4
O-H bonds must broken for these compounds to be acidic
Note: the acidic hydrogens are bonded to the O atoms ( and the metal as depicted by the molecular formula)

30. Strengths of Acids
For ternary acids, acid strength also increases with decreasing H-X bond strength.
Strong ternary acids have weaker H-O bonds than weak ternary acids.
For example, compare acid strengths:
HNO2<HNO H2SO3< H2SO4
This implies that the H-O bond strength is:
HNO2 > HNO H2SO3 > H2SO4

31. Strengths of Acids Ternary acid strength usually increases with:
an increasing number of O atoms on the central atom and
an increasing oxidation state of central atom.
Effectively, these are the same phenomenon.
Every additional O atom increases the oxidation state of the central atom by 2.

32. HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
Strengths of Acids
For ternary acids having the same central atom:
the highest oxidation state of the central atom is usually strongest acid.
For example, look at the strength of the Cl ternary acids.
HClO < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
weakest strongest
Cl oxidation states
(perchloric acid)
(Hypochlorous acid)
(chlorous acid)
(chloric acid)

33. Strengths of Acids Other examples: H2SO3 < H2SO4
(sulfurous acid) (sulfuric acid)
(stronger acids are on the right)
HNO < HNO3
(nitrous acid) (nitric acid)
Monoprotic acids have only one ionizable H e.g. HCl
Diprotic acids have 2 ionizable H atoms e.g. H2SO4
Polyprotic acids have more than 1 ionizable H atom e.g. H3PO4

34. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
There are four acid-base reaction combinations that are possible:
Strong acids – strong bases
Weak acids – strong bases
Strong acids – weak bases
Weak acids – weak bases
Let us look at one example of each acid-base reaction.

35. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Strong acids - strong bases
(a) forming soluble salts
This is one example of several possibilities
hydrobromic acid + calcium hydroxide
The molecular equation is:
You do it!
2 HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)  CaBr2(aq) H2O()

36. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
The total ionic equation is:
You do it!
2H+(aq) + 2Br-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Br-(aq) + 2H2O()
The net ionic equation is:
2H+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)  2H2O() or
H+ (aq) + OH-( aq)  H2O()
This net ionic equation is the same for all strong acid - strong base reactions that form soluble salts

37. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Strong acids-strong bases
(b) forming insoluble salts
There is only one reaction of this type:
sulfuric acid + barium hydroxide
The molecular equation is:
H2SO4(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)  BaSO4(s)+ 2H2O()
The net ionic equation is:
2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2H2O()

38. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Weak acids - strong bases
forming soluble salts
This is one example of many possibilities:
nitrous acid + sodium hydroxide
The molecular equation is:
HNO2(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaNO2(aq) + H2O()
The net ionic equation is:
HNO2(aq) + OH-(aq)  NO2-(aq) + H2O()

39. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Reminder – there are 3 types of substances that are written as ionized in total and net ionic equations.
Strong acids
Strong bases
Strongly water soluble salts

40. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Strong acids - weak bases
forming soluble salts
This is one example of many.
nitric acid + ammonia
The molecular equation is:
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)
The total ionic equation is:
H+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
The net equation is:
H+(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4+(aq)

41. Acid-Base Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Weak acids - weak bases
forming soluble salts
This is one example of many possibilities.
acetic acid + ammonia
The molecular equation is:
CH3COOH(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4CH3COO(aq)
The total ionic equation is:
CH3COOH(aq) + NH3(aq)  NH4+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
The net ionic equation is:

42. Acidic Salts and Basic Salts
Acidic salts are formed by the reaction of polyprotic acids with less than the stoichiometric amount of base.
E.g. if sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide are reacted in a 1:1 ratio.
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaHSO4(aq) + H2O()
The acidic salt sodium hydrogen sulfate is formed.
If sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide are reacted in a 1:2 ratio.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O()
The normal salt sodium sulfate is formed.

43. Acidic Salts and Basic Salts
Similarly, basic salts are formed by the reaction of polyhydroxy bases with less than the stoichiometric amount of acid.
E.g. If barium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are reacted in a 1:1 ratio.
Ba(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq)  Ba(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O()
The basic salt is formed.
If the reaction is in a 1:2 ratio.
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O()
The normal salt is formed.

44. Most familiar e.g. of an acidic salt is sodium hydrogen carbonate or baking soda (NaHCO3)
Basic aluminum salts e.g. Al(OH)2Cl, aluminum dihydroxide chloride and Al(OH)Cl2 aluminum hydroxide dichloride are components of some antiperspirants
p. 361

45. Acidic Salts and Basic Salts
Both acidic and basic salts can neutralize acids and bases.
However the resulting solutions are either acidic or basic because they form conjugate acids or bases.
Another example of BrØnsted-Lowry theory.
This is an important concept in understanding buffers.
An acidic salt neutralization example is:
NaHSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O()
A basic salt neutralization example is:
Ba(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq)  BaCl2(aq) + H2O()

46. The Lewis Theory
This is the most general of the present day acid-base theories.
Emphasis on what the electrons are doing as opposed to what the protons are doing.
Acids are defined as electron pair acceptors.
Bases are defined as electron pair donors.
Neutralization reactions are accompanied by coordinate covalent bond formation.

47. The Lewis Theory
One Lewis acid-base example is the ionization of ammonia.
Look at this reaction in more detail paying attention to the electrons.
Base- e- pair donor
Acid- e- pair acceptor

48. The Lewis Theory A second example is the ionization of HBr.
HBr + H2O H3O+ + Br-
acid base
Acid- e- pair acceptor
Base- e- pair donor
The H that came from the acid is bonded to water via a dative or coordinate bond

49. The Lewis Theory
The reaction of sodium fluoride and boron trifluoride provides an example of a reaction that is only a Lewis acid-base reaction.
It does not involve H+ at all, thus it cannot be an Arrhenius nor a Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reaction.
NaF + BF3  Na+ + BF4-
You must draw the detailed picture of this reaction to determine which is the acid and which is the base.

50. The Lewis Theory BF3 is a strong Lewis acid
It accepts an e- pair from the fluoride ion

51. The Lewis Theory
BF3 is a strong Lewis acid. Another example of it reacting with NH3 is shown in this movie.

52. Acid-Base Theories
Look at the reaction of ammonia and hydrobromic acid.
NH3 + HBr NH4++ Br-
Is this reaction an example of:
Arrhenius acid-base reaction,
Brønsted-Lowry acid base reaction,
Lewis acid-base reaction,
or a combination of these?
You do it!
It is a Lewis and Brønsted-Lowry acid base reaction but not Arrhenius.