1. Chapter 14 Functions

2. Agenda
Functions
Activation record
Recursion

3. Function Smaller, simpler, subcomponent of program
Provides abstraction
hide low-level details
give high-level structure to program, easier to understand overall program flow
enables separable, independent development
C functions
zero or multiple arguments passed in
single result returned (optional)
return value is always a particular type
In other languages, called procedures, subroutines, ...

4. Functions in C Declaration (also called prototype)
int Factorial(int n);
Function call -- used in expression
a = x + Factorial(f + g);
type of return value
name of function
types and all arguments
1. evaluate arguments
2, execute function
3. use return value in expression

5. gives control back to calling function and returns value
Function Definition
State type, name, types of arguments
must match function declaration
give name to each argument (doesn't have to match declaration)
int Factorial(int n) {
int i; int result = 1; for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) result *= i; return result; }
gives control back to calling function and returns value

6. Why Declaration?
Since function definition also includes return and argument types, why is declaration needed?
Use might be seen before definition. Compiler needs to know return and arg types and number of arguments.

7. Example declaration function call (invocation) definition
double ValueInDollars(double amount, double rate);
main() { dollars = ValueInDollars(francs, DOLLARS_PER_FRANC); printf("%f francs equals %f dollars.\n", francs, dollars); ... }
double ValueInDollars(double amount, double rate) {
return amount * rate;
declaration
function call (invocation)
definition

8. Agenda
Functions
Activation record
Recursion

9. Implementing Functions: Overview
Activation record
information about each function, including arguments, local variables, return address
stored on run-time stack
Calling function
Called function
copy values into arguments call function
set up environment
execute code put result in activation record
pop activation record from stack return
get result from stack

10. Run-Time Stack Recall that local variables are stored in a stack frame
A stack frame is in an activation record on the run-time stack
When a new function is called, its activation record is pushed on the stack; when it returns, its activation record is popped off of the stack.
instructions
global data
run-time
stack
0x0000
0xFFFF PC R4 R6 R5

11. Example Run-Time Stack
int main() { int k; int m; k = Watt(m); } int Watt(int a) { int w, s, t; return w; }

12. Run-Time Stack Before call During call After call Memory Memory Memory
Watt R6 R6 R5 R5
main
main
main
Before call
During call
After call

13. Activation Record
int NoName(int a, int b) { int w, x, y; return y; } y x w
dynamic link
return address
return value a b
locals R5
bookkeeping
args
Name
Type
Offset
Scope a b w x y
int 4 5 -1 -2
NoName

14. Activation Record Bookkeeping
Return value
space for value returned by function
allocated even if function does not return a value
Return address
save pointer to next instruction in calling function
convenient location to store R7 in case another function (JSR) is called
Dynamic link
caller’s frame pointer
used to pop this activation record from stack

15. Example Function Call
int Volta(int q, int r) { int k; int m; return k; } int Watt(int a) { int w; w = Volta(w,10); return w; }

16. Calling the Function w = Volta(w, 10);
dyn link
ret addr
ret val a
w = Volta(w, 10);
; push second arg AND R0, R0, #0 ADD R0, R0, #10 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; push first argument LDR R0, R5, #0 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; call subroutine JSR Volta R6 R5
xFD00
Note: Caller needs to know number and type of arguments, doesn't know about local variables.

17. Calling the Function w = Volta(w, 10);25 r w
dyn link
ret addr
ret val a
w = Volta(w, 10);
; push second arg AND R0, R0, #0 ADD R0, R0, #10 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; push first argument LDR R0, R5, #0 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; call subroutine JSR Volta R6 R5
xFD00
Note: Caller needs to know number and type of arguments, doesn't know about local variables.

18. Calling the Function w = Volta(w, 10); 25 10 q r w dyn link ret addr
ret val a
w = Volta(w, 10);
; push second arg AND R0, R0, #0 ADD R0, R0, #10 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; push first argument LDR R0, R5, #0 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; call subroutine JSR Volta R6 R5
xFD00
Note: Caller needs to know number and type of arguments, doesn't know about local variables.

19. Calling the Function w = Volta(w, 10); 25 10 q r w dyn link ret addr
ret val a
w = Volta(w, 10);
; push second arg AND R0, R0, #0 ADD R0, R0, #10 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; push first argument LDR R0, R5, #0 ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R0, R6, #0 ; call subroutine JSR Volta R6 R5
xFD00
Note: Caller needs to know number and type of arguments, doesn't know about local variables.

20. JSR Instruction
Jumps to a location (like a branch but unconditional), and saves current PC (addr of next instruction) in R7.
saving the return address is called “linking”
target address is PC-relative (PC + Sext(IR[10:0]))
bit 11 specifies addressing mode
if =1, PC-relative: target address = PC + Sext(IR[10:0])
if =0, register: target address = contents of register IR[8:6] 20

21. Starting the Callee Function25 10
ret val q r w
dyn link
ret addr a
; leave space for return value ADD R6, R6, #-1 ; push return address ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R7, R6, #0 ; push dyn link (caller’s frame ptr) ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R5, R6, #0 ; set new frame pointer ADD R5, R6, #-1 ; allocate space for locals ADD R6, R6, #-2 R6 R5
xFD00

22. Starting the Callee Function
x3100 25 10
ret addr
ret val q r w
dyn link a
; leave space for return value ADD R6, R6, #-1 ; push return address ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R7, R6, #0 ; push dyn link (caller’s frame ptr) ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R5, R6, #0 ; set new frame pointer ADD R5, R6, #-1 ; allocate space for locals ADD R6, R6, #-2 R6 R5
xFD00

23. Starting the Callee Function
xFCFB
x3100 25 10
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
; leave space for return value ADD R6, R6, #-1 ; push return address ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R7, R6, #0 ; push dyn link (caller’s frame ptr) ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R5, R6, #0 ; set new frame pointer ADD R5, R6, #-1 ; allocate space for locals ADD R6, R6, #-2 R6 R5
xFD00

24. Starting the Callee Function
xFCFB
x3100 25 10
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
; leave space for return value ADD R6, R6, #-1 ; push return address ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R7, R6, #0 ; push dyn link (caller’s frame ptr) ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R5, R6, #0 ; set new frame pointer ADD R5, R6, #-1 ; allocate space for locals ADD R6, R6, #-2 R5 R6
xFD00

25. Starting the Callee Function
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
; leave space for return value ADD R6, R6, #-1 ; push return address ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R7, R6, #0 ; push dyn link (caller’s frame ptr) ADD R6, R6, #-1 STR R5, R6, #0 ; set new frame pointer ADD R5, R6, #-1 ; allocate space for locals ADD R6, R6, #-2 R6 R5
xFD00

26. Ending the Callee Function
-43
217
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
return k;
; copy k into return value LDR R0, R5, #0 STR R0, R5, #3 ; pop local variables ADD R6, R5, #1 ; pop dynamic link (into R5) LDR R5, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop return addr (into R7) LDR R7, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; return control to caller RET R6 R5
xFD00

27. Ending the Callee Function
-43
217
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
return k;
; copy k into return value LDR R0, R5, #0 STR R0, R5, #3 ; pop local variables ADD R6, R5, #1 ; pop dynamic link (into R5) LDR R5, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop return addr (into R7) LDR R7, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; return control to caller RET R5 R6
xFD00

28. Ending the Callee Function
-43
217
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
return k;
; copy k into return value LDR R0, R5, #0 STR R0, R5, #3 ; pop local variables ADD R6, R5, #1 ; pop dynamic link (into R5) LDR R5, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop return addr (into R7) LDR R7, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; return control to caller RET R6 R5
xFD00

29. Ending the Callee Function
-43
217
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
return k;
; copy k into return value LDR R0, R5, #0 STR R0, R5, #3 ; pop local variables ADD R6, R5, #1 ; pop dynamic link (into R5) LDR R5, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop return addr (into R7) LDR R7, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; return control to caller RET R6 R5
xFD00

30. Ending the Callee Function
-43
217
xFCFB
x3100 25 10 m k
dyn link
ret addr
ret val q r w a
return k;
; copy k into return value LDR R0, R5, #0 STR R0, R5, #3 ; pop local variables ADD R6, R5, #1 ; pop dynamic link (into R5) LDR R5, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop return addr (into R7) LDR R7, R6, #0 ADD R6, R6, #1 ; return control to caller RET R6 R5
xFD00

31. Resuming the Caller Function
217 25 10
ret val q r w
dyn link
ret addr a
w = Volta(w,10);
JSR Volta ; load return value (top of stack) LDR R0, R6, #0 ; perform assignment STR R0, R5, #0 ; pop return value ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop arguments ADD R6, R6, #2 R6 R5
xFD00

32. Resuming the Caller Function
217 25 10
ret val q r w
dyn link
ret addr a
w = Volta(w,10);
JSR Volta ; load return value (top of stack) LDR R0, R6, #0 ; perform assignment STR R0, R5, #0 ; pop return value ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop arguments ADD R6, R6, #2 R6 R5
xFD00

33. Resuming the Caller Function
217 25 10
ret val q r w
dyn link
ret addr a
w = Volta(w,10);
JSR Volta ; load return value (top of stack) LDR R0, R6, #0 ; perform assignment STR R0, R5, #0 ; pop return value ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop arguments ADD R6, R6, #2 R6 R5
xFD00

34. Resuming the Caller Function
217 25 10
ret val q r w
dyn link
ret addr a
w = Volta(w,10);
JSR Volta ; load return value (top of stack) LDR R0, R6, #0 ; perform assignment STR R0, R5, #0 ; pop return value ADD R6, R6, #1 ; pop arguments ADD R6, R6, #2 R6 R5
xFD00

35. Summary of LC-3 Function Call Implementation
Caller pushes arguments (last to first).
Caller invokes subroutine (JSR).
Callee allocates return value, pushes R7 and R5.
Callee allocates space for local variables.
Callee executes function code.
Callee stores result into return value slot.
Callee pops local vars, pops R5, pops R7.
Callee returns (JMP R7).
Caller loads return value and pops arguments.
Caller resumes computation…

36. Agenda
Functions
Activation record
Recursion

37. Chapter 17 Recursion

38. What is Recursion?
A recursive function is one that solves its task by calling itself on smaller pieces of data.
In some cases, using recursion can make program easy to understand

39. Factorial: C Code f(n) = n * f(n-1) int factorial(int n){ if (n==1)
return 1;
else
return n*factorial(n-1); }

40. Activation Records
fact(3)
Whenever factorial is invoked, a new activation record is pushed onto the stack.
main calls factorial(3)
factorial(3) calls factorial(2)
factorial(2) calls factorial(1) R6
main 3
3*fact(2) R6
main 3
3*fact(2) 2
2*fact(1) R6 1 1
2*fact(1) 2
3*fact(2) 3
main

41. Activation Records (cont.)
factorial(1)
returns
factorial(2)
returns
factorial(3)
returns R6
main 3
3*fact(2) 2
2*1 R6
main 3
3*2 R6
main