2. Company Rule 1765: Company acquired the diwani of Bengal
: Company had dual role of trader and ruler
1833: its commercial role was abolished
Civil Services under the company divided into
Covenanted Civil Service: consisted only of Englishmen
Uncovenanted Civil Service: included Indians, Parsis, English and the Portuguese

3. Regulating Act 1773 Pitt’s India Act, 1784
Laid down the skeleton of the present governmental system in the country
Gov Gen and council appointed in Bengal
Provided that a Supreme Court of justice be established
Pitt’s India Act, 1784
Board of Control established in England
The Court of Directors was retained but was subjected to the authority of the Board of Control
BoC became the real ruling authority over India
Gov Gen was given more effective power over the council
Positives
After years of irresponsible administration, Act was a measure to rationalise the system

4. Hastings Civil service became structured
Company became a govt and took up functions of revenue and maintenance of law and order.
Establishment of the secretariat system
The post of collector was introduced
He laid the foundation on which Cornwallis built a super-structure
Civil and Criminal courts established
Supreme court

5. Cornwallis Area administration Law and order Judicial Administration
Consolidated Indian districts into definite administrative units
Each district placed under a magistrate and a collector
Law and order
Each district was divided into a number of police circles, or thanas
Judicial Administration
Comprehensive system of justice
Introduced highly liberal system of remuneration
Efforts to remove patronage and see that all important offices are held by covenanted CS
Cornwallis Code: concerned with correctives against the abuse of power by the officials
Separated customs from the revenue department
Permanent Settlement
Boards were set up for administration: board of trade, board of revenue, military board and medical board

6. Cornwallis Positives Drawback Conclusion
Introduced into the organisation of civil service a definitive, legal and rational principle, expressed in the separation of revenue and judicial functions
Cornwallis Code
Defined the powers of civil servants in each capacity, with fixed salaries assigned according to the degree of responsibility
Drawback
Europeanisation of Civil Service: his systematic effort to exclude Indians from taking part in the administration
Could not give India a modern code of law
Conclusion
Cornwallis created certain basic conditions for the growth of bureaucratization
Apart from consolidating the foundations of state authority, he brought corporate, legal and professional concepts into bear upon the organisation of his administrative staff

7. Bentinck: evolved the modern concept of district magistrate
Wellesley
Contribution in the field of training: Fort William College in Calcutta in (abolished in 1802).
Hartford Castle (1806): the qualification of candidates was tested by a written and an oral examination
Bentinck: evolved the modern concept of district magistrate
Charter Act of 1833
Centralisation was the guiding principle
Gov Gen’s council enlarged
Presidency of Bengal divided into two parts: Bengal and Agra (nullified in 1835)
Gov Gen of Bengal became Gov Gen of India
The activities of the Company as a commercial body came to an end
Mentioned that Indians should not be debarred from holding office under the company

8. Macaulay Committee Report, 1854
Dalhousie
Post and telegraph
Public Works department
Division of governmental functions into well-defined departments was yet another of his reforms
Charter Act of 1853
Introduced a system of open competition for recruitment
Released the gov gen from direct involvement in the details of provincial administration
Macaulay Committee Report, 1854
Laid the foundations for administrative reforms in India
Competitive recruitment and training
Proposed a detailed scheme of the examination

9. Consequences of the Company rule
Decadence of the indigenous institution of self-government
Provinces grouped arbitrarily
Enormous growth in public taxation and expenditure
Insufficient attention to education, public health, irrigation
Neglect of indigenous industry and agriculture -> famines
Excessive curbs on the political activities of the people

10. 1859: Portfolio system by Canning
Act of 1858
1859: Portfolio system by Canning
Work of the govt, divided into several branches, was entrusted to different members of the Gov Gen’s council
Act of 1861
Initiated the process of decentralisation
Member in-charge of his dept could issue final orders with regard to matters which concerned his department
Restored some of the powers of the legislative councils of Madras and Bombay
Provided for setting up of new councils in other provinces as well
Provision for inclusion of some Indians in the council of the gov gen

11. Aitchison Commission (1886-87)
Supported the formation of a lower, local civil service to be called the provincial civil service
Covenanted CS was abolished and three services were carved out
Imperial Civil Service
Provincial CS
Subordinate CS

12. Councils Act 1892 Councils Act 1909
Enlarged the functions of the legislative councils
Elected representatives in LC
Councils Act 1909
Provided for a distribution of powers between the centre and the provinces
The division however, did not make India federal. Centre was still very powerful
Further increased the size of legislative councils
Communal Award
Decentralisation Commission (1909) made recommendations for the revival and growth of panchayats

13. Govt of India Act 1919
Dealt with the structure of provincial governments
Dyarchy: provincial subjects were divided into ‘reserved’ and ‘transferred’
LSG became a provincial and transferred subject under a responsible Indian minister

14. 1923: Royal Commission on superior civil services in India
Why dyarchy failed?
Dividing the govt into branches proved to be unscientific and unnatural
Destroyed the unity of purpose of govt activities
Governor had the last word. No system of collective responsibility.
Finance was a reserved subject
1923: Royal Commission on superior civil services in India
Chair: Lord Lee of Farham
Recommended the establishment of a Public Service Commission

15. Act of 1935
Abolished dyarchy in the provinces but introduced it in the centre
Provincial autonomy
Three lists: Union, state and concurrent
Relaxed some autocratic control of the Crown in certain spheres and replaced it with a popular government
Created an All-India Federation
Drawbacks
It was not mandatory for the princely states to join the federation
Federal features of the constitution were thus not implemented

16. Features of the British rule can be discussed under the following heads
Creation of the ICS
Secretariat system
Pay, promotions and transfers
Provincial civil service
Financial administration
Financial accountability
Law and order
Administration of justice
Local self government
Bureaucratic leadership

17. Bureaucracy

18. Bureaucratic Development
Three phases under Company rule
Phase 1: Upto 1765 when it emerged as a territorial power
Phase 2: – period of parliamentary intervention without definite political policy
Phase 3 – 1798 onwards – developments by Wellesley
Phase 1
Royal charter of 1661 authorised the company to appoint governor to the provinces
Writers were appointed
Organisation of CS contained modern ingredients such as a centralised agency of recruitment, graded heirarchy, contractual service and a body of rules governing the transaction of its corporate business
Patronage was rampant

19. Phase 2
To check nepotism and abuse of nomination, the Charter Act of 1793 laid down that all vacancies occuring in Civil offices below the Council should be filled by the members of the Convenant CS belonging to that province
Made CS a compact body of officers who were paid according to the number of years of service
Phase 3
Wellesley
Fort William College for training of CS established
Charter of 1813
During this phase there were two competing principles of administration
First recognised the rule of law as the ruling force
Second advocated a form of rule by discretion of executive inter-position
Selection on merit and promotion on seniority

20. 1858-1919 1919-1947 Efforts at rationalisation of the bureaucracy
Was a period of bureaucratic despotism where every level of hierarchy tried to tighten the chains around the subordinates
Act of 1858 provided for recruitment to CCS through open competitive exam held at London
Indian Civil Service Act, 1861: reserved certain high posts in administration for the members of ICS
1876: age limit for recruitment reduced to 19
1892: min age raised to 21 and max to 23
Towards decentralisation
1907: decentralisation commission
Collector to be recognised as the head of the district in all administrative matters
Rural and municipal councils
1935: provincial autonomy

21. Indian Civil Services

22. Beginning of Civil Services
Even before 1765, the company had set up an elaborate system of administration
Apparantice and Writers constituted the lowest level
Two types
Covenanted
Un-covenanted
Beginning of Civil Services
Hastings took steps to separate the commercial and administrative activities of the company
Gave large powers to the covenanted civil servants
Mixed system of administration
Both Europeans and Indians in the CS
Though Europeans were at higher posts.

23. Europeanisation of Civil Services
Cornwallis abandoned the system of mixed administration
Since he introduced rule of law and security of property (European concepts) he needed Europeans to man the administration

24. Organisation and Recruitment
Divided into two main classes
Covenanted
Uncovenanted
(After 1892 these were called ICS and Provincial CS respectively)
ICS consisted of only that body of civil servants recruited according to provisions of the GoI Act, 1858 and for whom certain posts were reserved
Later other methods besides open competition were also used
Between 1858 and 1919 recruitment to the ICS was made chiefly by open competition held in London

25. Act of 1833 made two major changes regarding recruitment
Cornwallis’ policy of excluding Indians was repudiated
The policy of combining nomination with examination was adopted (early it was mostly nomination)
Act of 1853
Removed the provision of nomination to the covenanted CS
All recruitment hence was to be through an open competition
First competitive exam held in 1855
First Indian civil servant: Satyendra Nath Tagore (1864)

26. Statutory Civil Service
Instituted in 1879 by Lord Lytton
Was a device to appease educated Indian who were agitating for employment in the covenanted civil service
Appointments were generally confined to young men of ‘good family’ and social position possessing fair abilities and education

27. Indian Civil Service 1892, the two services rechristened as
Provincial Civil Service
Macaulay Report: Led to the establishment of a merit based bureaucracy
Recruitment to ICS made on the basis of an open competitive examination which was held in London
Emphasised that this be a service of men endowed with the best intellectual traditions, ideas and sentiments
Macaulay’s ideas of recruitment lent support to the power elite theory of bureaucracy being the ruling class
Idea of specific age limit for taking the exam evolved with Macaulay’s report
By 1920, there were a total of five methods of entry into the higher civil service
Competitive exam conducted by and independent agency
Another substantial contribution was institutionalizing a training system

28. Indianisation of ICS
1870: Parliament passed an Act making provision for appointment of Indians to certain posts reserved for ICS
This arrangement proved to be unsatisfactory and was abolished on the recommendation of the Aitchison Committee (1889)
: Indian Association organised agitation on the civil services question
This resulted in the creation of Statutory CS
Congress also took up the issue
Curzon’s govt reiterated the policy of English occupying the highest posts
By 1913 only 5 pc of the ICS were Indians

29. 1886: Public Service Commission
Chair: Lord Aitchison
Upheld the recruitment policy of 1858
Provincial and Indian CS
Continuance of the London test was strongly defended
Through the commission’s recommendations, a three tier structure was adopted
ICS, PCS and Subordinate CS
This structure continues to till date
In a sense, the commission imparted finality to the public service structure
1912: Royal Commission on Public Services in India
Chair: Lord Islington
Rejected the demand for simultaneous exam
Recommended that recruitment to be made through two channels
One in London open to all
One in India open to statutory natives only

30. Creation of a provincial civil service
On the recommendation of the Aitchison Commission the following changes were made
Covenanted CS renamed as Indian Civil Service
Uncovenanted CS renamed as Provincial CS
An element of reservation existed in PCS to provide representation to different classes

31. Secretariat Portfolio System (1858) Staffing
Central pool for drawing manpower
Recruitment to the upper division of the secretariat made through direct appointments
1937: Maxwell committee recommended that the ministerial staff should be divided into two main grades – assistants and clerks
Features of the secretariat system
Reliance on precedents
Incapacity of the lower grades of officials to share responsibility
Practice of excessive record keeping and noting

32. Secretariat Reforms Secretariat Procedure Committee, 1919
Recommended a pyramidal organisation
Lewellyn Smith Committee (1920)
Recommended that tenure of the secys and dy secys be fixed to bring stability
Secretariat Committee (Wheeler), 1935
Studied the problem of delays in working
Rec. practice of double notings to speed work
Tottenham Committee ( )
Reported on the organisation of departments, the question of staffing and reorganisation of the entire secretariat system

33. Pay, promotions and transfers
Posts divided into superior and inferior categories. Pay depended on this.
The system of promotion brought about an onslaught on the traditional-bound Indian society
Promotion provided an element of social mobility, especially for the lower castes
The frequency of transfers sapped the vitality of the British administration

34. Area Administration
After the revolt, a four tier structure was adopted
District Administration
Provincial Government
Government of India
Home Government
The administrative links between these four tiers were provided by statures, rules and conventions

35. Revenue Administration
Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis

36. Financial Administration
Initially the Accountant General of Fort William of Bengal controlled the finances
From 1846, the Secy to the Govt of India in the Finance Dept was nominated the ex-officio Accountant General of India
Creation of the general department of accounts in place of separate accounts for each presidency
During Company rule, revenue came from
Land and taxes on trade and personal property
Expenditure
Security or defence
Social and development services
1860: The most important administrative innovation was the introduction of the budget sytem
Financial resources to be ascertained before the start of the year
1860
Central Revenue Department created
Imperial Audit Department was set up

37. Creation of reform committees in the field of revenue administratiion
Resolution of 1860 provided for the creation of a Budget and Audit Committee
Introduction of govt paper currency in 1860

38. Financial Accountability
1772: Supervisors as collectors in district
1781: Board of Revenue became the controlling authority for revenue purposes
1829: Divisional commissioners appointed to supervise the collectors
1919: C&AG was made responsible to the central admin
1922: Central Public Accounts Committee created
1926: given power to inspect any government office of account
1934: RBI established

39. Law and Order Administration
Foundations of the contemporary police administration laid during British rule
Indian Police Act, 1861
IGP head of state police. SP at district level.
Subordinate police force consisted of the inspectors, head constables, sargeants and constables
Prior to the Police Act, the magistrate was the head of the district police
After 1861, magistrate ceased to be a direct police functionary but still had some control over police matters, in addition also retained judicial authority.
Thus, DM now had powers over the district police as well over subordinate magistracy. Over centralisation of authority in one official paved the way for administrative despotism at the district level.

40. Report of the Police Commission (1902-03)
A European service to be recruited entirely in England
A provincial service to be recruited entirely in India
Upper subordinate service consisting of inspectors and sub-inspectors
Lower subordinate service comprising head constables and constables
A province to be divided into ranges
IPC, 1960, CrPC, 1861, Indian Evidence Act etc constituted the legal framework of criminal justice administration that helped the police system to exercise its functions effectively

41. Judicial Administration
Hastings organised two courts in each district
Exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction
Cornwallis introduced the separation of power between executive and judiciary
Cornwallis code of 1793 took away the judicial powers of the Collector.
Laid the foundation of independent judiciary
Code provided for a three tier system
European judges with the zilla and city courts at the bottom
Four Provincial court of appeal at the middle level
Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalat at the top. Besides, Privy Council at the top
Criminal justice was in the hands of the four provincial courts
Called Circuit Courts
At the top was the Sadar Nizamat adalat to hear appeals from the Circuit Courts
Holt Mackenzie
Removed the intermediate tier as it slowed down the process
Recommended that primary jurisdiction in all cases, except a few, be vested in Indians

42. Judicial Administration
Judicial admin created perpetual problems
People did not know the laws of the rulers
Rulers did not know the traditions of the people
Bentinck introduced major reforms to improve the situation
The district judges of Cornwallis’ creation had to surrender their magesterial powers to the district collectors
Thus there emerged the district officer who was the DM, collector and the head of the police force
DM of Bentick continued till the end of the British Administration

43. Local Self Government
1864: statutory recognition was granted to panchayats as petty courts in Bombay and Madras
1870: Mayo included the panchayats in the management of funds devoted to education, public works etc
Ripon
1882: recommended the extension of the elected element in rural bodies, reduction in the size of the official element, an elected non-official as the chairman of rural bodies and financial decentralisation
Decentralisation Commission of 1909 recommended
Three tier system
Village Panchayat
Local tehsil
District board
1919
LSG became a provincial and transferred subject under a responsible Indian minister

44. Conclusion Indian Administration built on its British heritage
Eg. All India services, recruitment, training, secretariat system, district admin, revenue admin, police system, fin admin
Uniform system of administration
The princely states had different systems of administration
Their Acts and statutes are still in use
Innovation and stuff