1. TEXTUAL CRITICISM
LOWER CRITICISM

2. Problems of Translating the OT.
1. Ancient Hebrew was written in consonants only. E.g. in English LVD can be either Lived/Loved. 2. All literature was hand-copied and because of that some mistakes were made, e.g. repetitions, (2 Kings 18:17).

3. 3. Sometimes scribes copied by dictation
3. Sometimes scribes copied by dictation. So sometimes words were confused. 
4. Sloppy handwriting or just bad hand writing. 
5. Intentional additions.
6. Books were expensive.
7. Readers put comments and critiques directly in the margins of a manuscript.
8. Sometimes the comments would be mistaken for the original by subsequent copyists.

4. Text Critics’ Method of Solving Problems
1. Compare many ancient texts of a given book. 2. They suggest possible changes being guided by their professional judgment. 3. They compare ancient translations such as Greek and Syriac.

5. 4. They look for parallel translations in other parts of the bible to see the relationship with the problematic verse.
5. Study of other Semitic languages would help, since they were related.
6. Sometimes emendation/change is done but there are strict guidelines to do it.
7. Sometimes eisegesis (read into the text) is done to defend some modern meaning.

6. TEXT TRADITIONS
At the time of Jesus, there were 3 major groupings/families of text types:
1. The Babylonian – tightly knit, short
2. The Palestinian
3. The Egyptian – richer and more expanded.
Later the rabbis chose the best texts.

7. In the 1st century rabbis chose the Babylonian Pentateuch, but for Jeremiah and Isaiah, they followed the Palestinian type text.
The early rabbis decided to inaugurate a method of guarding the text from any more glosses and additions:
They counted the words, syllables, and sections.
They wrote the total at the end of each book of the OT.
This helped…

8. VERSIONS
In the eighth and eleventh centuries AD the Masoretes (interpreters) put vowels to the OT (Masoretic version).

9. ANCIENT TRANSLATION OF THE OT 1. SEPTUAGINT
It was made in the 3rd century BC.
Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures plus all the deuterocanonical books.
It was widely used by the Jews of the diaspora, NT writers, and early Xtns.
Some translators have worked backward from the Septuagint to the Hebrew Scriptures (reverse translation)
Some Hebrew scholars do not quite like the Septuagint because of the Deuterocanonical books.

10. PESHITTA
The Syriac (dialect) of Aramaic was made in Syria by Xtns, dating from the 2nd century AD.
It has some passages supporting both Hebrew and the Septuagint.
Experts use these differences to help get past difficulties.
Peshitta/Peshitto – simple

11. 3. VULGATE
St Jerome’s careful Latin Translation done in the 5th century AD.
He followed the Hebrew text and at times got help from Jewish experts.
It became the common text in the Western Churches.
Literary critics use it.

12. 4. TARGUM Means translation/Interpretation in Aramaic.
A loose paraphrased translation and had to be read alongside Hebrew Scriptures.
Had many errors.