1. Government in America: People, Politics, and Policy
Thirteenth AP* Edition
Edwards/Wattenberg/Lineberry
Chapter 12
Congress
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The answer is:
Who determines how much money can be spent on everything from financial aid for college, to interstate highways, to meat inspectors, to air traffic controllers, to how many tanks, airplanes, and ships the U.S. armed forces will have?
Who determines how much Americans will pay in federal income taxes, social security taxes, and how much corporations will pay in taxes?
Who determines whether or not one is eligible to receive financial assistance for college, or food stamps, or social security?
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CONGRESS: Since 1789
Congress: The Legislative Branch (the part of government that makes the laws)
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Congress
Congress is the national legislature of the USA. It’s main task is making the laws for the USA. Its members represent individual congressional districts and states. At the same time all members of Congress, as members of the national legislature, pass laws that are binding on citizens of all of the 50 states and territories.
Are members supposed to put the interests of their constituents above the national interest?
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Congress
What branch of government did the Framers view as the center of policymaking in the America? Why?
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Congress
Congress enacts the laws for the nation. Its chief function is to legislate, enact/make laws. The only branch of government in the original Constitution which was directly chosen by the people was the lower house of Congress. The House of Representatives, along with the Senate have the most important responsibility in a democratic system, translating the will of the people into public policy through laws.
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2. What supporting details are given to support the following statement: …it is difficult to get anything done [in Congress]?
“The movement of legislation through the congressional labyrinth is complicated and slow, and there are many checks on policymaking. Power is fragmented within Congress, and representatives and Senators are fiercely independent…”
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Congress
Does having the President and Congress from the same party guarantee legislative success? Explain.
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Does having the President and Congress from the same party guarantee legislative success? Explain.
“Even when the president’s party has majorities in both houses of Congress, disagreements within the party may hinder policymaking.” (Remember, members of Congress are “fiercely independent”; their primary goal is re-election. If they feel that a vote in line with their party and/or President may hurt their re-election chances, they very well may vote the other way.)
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Congress
 Explain how critics answer the following question: How well does Congress combine its roles of representing constituents and making effective public policy?
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Congress
  Explain how critics answer the following question: How well does Congress combine its roles of representing constituents and making effective public policy?
“Not very well, according to many critics. Some argue that Congress is too responsive to constituents and, especially, to organized interests and is thus unable to make difficult choices regarding public policy.
Conversely, others argue that Congress is too insulated from ordinary citizens and makes policy to suit the few rather than the many.
In both case, detractors argue that Congress is incapable of making decisions that will serve the long-term interests of the average American.” p.364
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Congress
Is the work of a member of Congress demanding? If so, how has this affected the number of those willing to serve?
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13. The Representatives and Senators
The Job
Salary of $174,000 with retirement benefits
Office space in D.C. and at home with staff
Travel allowances and franking privileges
Requires long hours, a lot of time away from family, and pressure from others to support their policies
What is the primary goal of every member of Congress? Re-election
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14. The Representatives and Senators
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15. The Representatives and Senators
The Members: Who is a typical member?
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16. The Members of Congress
Members of Congress are NOT typical or average Americans. Those who argue the country is run by elites are quick to point out that members largely come from occupations w/high status and usually have substantial incomes.
Obviously members cannot claim descriptive representation – that is, representing constituents by mirroring their personal, politically relevant characteristics. They may, however, engage in substantive representation – representing the interests of groups. It doesn’t matter if you look like your constituents, what matters is if you legislate in the interest of your constituents.
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17. Congressional Elections
Who Wins Elections?
Incumbent: Those already holding office; usually win
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Congress
Why do incumbents have such an advantage over their opponents?
Why are Senate incumbents slightly more vulnerable to defeat?
How does gerrymandering effect the retention of incumbents?
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19. Congressional Elections
The Advantages of Incumbents
Advertising:
The goal is to be visible to your constituents
Frequent trips home, use of newsletter, and technology
Credit Claiming:
Service to constituents through:
Casework: specifically helping constituents get what they think they have a right to
Pork Barrel: federal projects, grants, etc. made available in a congressional district or state
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20. Congressional Elections
The Advantages of Incumbents
Position Taking:
Portray themselves as hard working, dedicated individuals
Occasionally take a partisan stand on an issue
Weak Opponents:
Inexperienced in politics, unorganized, and underfunded
Campaign Spending:
Challengers need to raise large sums to defeat an incumbent
PACs give most of their money to incumbents
Does PAC money “buy” votes in Congress?
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21. Congressional Elections
The Role of Party Identification
Most members represent the majority party in their district, and most who identify with a party reliably vote for its candidates
Defeating Incumbents
One tarnished by scandal or corruption becomes vulnerable to a challenger
Redistricting, especially gerrymandered districts may weaken the incumbency advantage
Major political tidal wave may defeat incumbents
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22. Congressional Elections
Open Seats
Greater likelihood of competition
Most turnover occurs in open seats
Stability and Change
Incumbents provide stability in Congress
Change in Congress occurs less frequently through elections
Are term limits an answer?
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Congress
Incumbent Senators have a more difficult time winning re-election than House members. They are still favored, but a challenger has a more fighting chance at an upset victory. WHY?
an entire state is almost always more diverse than a congressional district and thus provides a larger base for opposition to an incumbent
Senators have less personal contact w/their constituencies
Senators get more news coverage than representatives do and more likely to be held accountable on controversial issues
Senators also tend to get more visible challengers who often see the Senate as a stepping stone to national prominence and sometimes the White House
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24. Congress American Bicameralism The House The Senate
Bicameral: legislature divided into two houses
The House
435 members, 2 year terms of office
Initiates all revenue bills, more influential on budget
House Rules Committee (“traffic cop”)
Limited debates; Speaker has much more control over his/her members than Senate Majority Leader
Majority passes a bill
The Senate
100 members, 6 year terms of office
Gives “advice & consent,” more influential on foreign affairs
Have power to confirm/reject Pres. appointments
Unlimited debates (filibuster) 60 votes needed to pass most bills
Each Senator far more powerful than House member (can stop a bill and block pres. appointments)
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25. Speaker John Boehner Senate Leader Harry Reid
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House
Senate
John Boehner (Speaker) (R)
Eric Cantor R
Kevin McCarthy R
Joe Biden
*(President of the
Senate)
Harry Reid (D) (Majority Leader)
Richard Durbin
(Majority Whip)
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27. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Congressional Leadership
The Senate
Formerly led by Vice President (“The President of the Senate”) (Chief Presiding Officer)
Really lead by Majority Leader—chosen by party members
Assisted by whips
Must work with Minority leader
Each Senator has far more power than House member; can stop bill, block pres. appointments
The House
Led by Speaker of the House (Chief Presiding Officer)—elected by House members
Presides over House
Major role in committee assignments and legislation
Assisted by majority leader and whips
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28. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
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29. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Five types of committees:
Standing committees: subject matter committees that handle bills in different policy areas
Subcommittees: committees are often broken down into smaller, even more specialized groups
Joint committees: a few subject-matter areas—membership drawn from House and Senate
Conference committees: resolve differences in House and Senate bills
Select committees: created for a specific purpose, such as the Watergate investigation
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30. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
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31. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
The Committees at Work: Legislation and Oversight
Legislation
Committees work on the thousands of bills every session
Some hold hearings and “mark up” meetings
Legislative oversight
Monitoring of the bureaucracy and its administration of policy through committee hearings
As publicity value of receiving credit for controlling spending has increase, so too has oversight grown
Oversight usually takes place after a catastrophe
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32. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Getting on a Committee
Members want committee assignments that will help them get reelected, gain influence, and make policy.
New members express their committee preferences to the party leaders.
Those who have supported their party’s leadership are favored in the selection process.
Parties try to grant committee preferences.
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33. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Getting Ahead on the Committee: Chairs and the Seniority System
Committee chair: the most important influencer of congressional agenda
Dominant role in scheduling hearings, hiring staff, appointing subcommittees, and managing committee bills when they are brought before the full house
Most chairs selected according to seniority system:
Members who have served on the committee the longest and whose party controlled Congress become chair
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34. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Caucuses: The Informal Organization of Congress
Caucus: a group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic
About 300 caucuses
Caucuses pressure for committee meetings and hearings and for votes on bills.
Caucuses can be more effective than lobbyists.
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35. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Congressional Staff
Personal staff: They work for the member, mainly providing constituent service, but help with legislation too.
Committee staff: organize hearings, research and write legislation, target of lobbyists
Staff Agencies: CRS, GAO, CBO provide specific information to Congress
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36. The Congressional Process
Legislation:
Bill: a proposed law
Anyone can draft a bill, but only members of Congress can introduce them.
More rules in the House than in the Senate
Party leaders play a vital role in steering bills through both houses, but less in the Senate
Countless influences on the legislative process
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37. The Congressional Process
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38. The Congressional Process
Presidents and Congress: Partners and Protagonists
Even though only a member of Congress can introduce legislation, most bills originate in the Executive Branch. Interest groups are also the source of many other bills.
Presidents attempt to persuade Congress that what they want is what Congress wants.
Presidents have many resources to influence Congress.
But to succeed, the president must win at least 10 times. Even having the President’s party in control of Congress does not guarantee success.
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39. The Congressional Process
But to succeed, the president must win at least 10 times.
In one house subcommittee
In the full House committee
In the House Rules committee to move to the floor
On the House floor
In one Senate subcommittee
In the full Senate committee
On the Senate floor (avoid filibuster)
In the House-Senate conference committee to work out the differences between the two bills
On the House floor for final passage
On the senate floor for final passage
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40. The Congressional Process
In the House-Senate conference committee to work out the differences between the two bills
On the House floor for final passage
On the senate floor for final passage
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41. The Congressional Process
Ultimately, presidential leadership of Congress is at the margins.
“…Rather than creating the conditions for important shifts in public policy, the effective American leader is the less heroic facilitator who works at the margins of coalition building to recognize and exploit opportunities presented by a favorable configuration of political forces.”
Ex. LBJ
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42. The Congressional Process
Party, Constituency, and Ideology
Party Influence:
Party leaders cannot force party members to vote a particular way, but many do vote along party lines.
Constituency versus Ideology
Prime determinant of member’s vote on most issues is ideology
On most issues that are not salient, legislators may ignore constituency opinion.
But on controversial issues, members are wise to heed constituent opinion.
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43. The Congressional Process
Lobbyists and Interest Groups
There are 35,000 registered lobbyists trying to influence Congress—the bigger the issue, the more lobbyists will be working on it.
Lobbyists try to influence legislators’ votes.
Lobbyists can be ignored, shunned and even regulated by Congress.
Ultimately, it is a combination of lobbyists and others that influence legislators’ votes.
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44. Understanding Congress
Congress and Democracy
Leadership and committee assignments are not representative
Congress does try to respond to what the people want, but some argue it could do a better job.
Members of Congress are responsive to the people, if the people make clear what they want.
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45. Understanding Congress
Congress and Democracy
Representation versus Effectiveness
Supporters claim that Congress:
is a forum in which many interests compete for policy
is decentralized, so there is no oligarchy to prevent comprehensive action
Critics argue that Congress:
is responsive to so many interests that policy is uncoordinated, fragmented, and decentralized
is so representative that it is incapable of taking decisive action to deal with difficult problems
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46. Understanding Congress
Congress and the Scope of Government
The more policies Congress works on, the more ways it can serve their constituencies.
The more programs that get created, the bigger the government gets.
Contradiction in public opinion: everybody wants government programs cut, just not their programs
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Summary
Members of Congress make policy.
They have a sizeable incumbency advantage.
Congress is structurally complex.
Presidents, parties, constituencies, and interest groups all affect legislators’ vote choices.
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Assessment
Occasionally, one party will have control of Congress and the presidency. This will give the majority party advantages in Congress, yet passing legislation is still difficult.
A. Describe the legislative advantages of the majority party in Congress with respect to both committee structure and leadership.
B. Explain why, even with single-party control, passing legislation is difficult. Use two examples to support your explanation.
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A. Describe the legislative advantages of the majority party in Congress with respect to both committee structure and leadership.
B. Explain why, even with single-party control, passing legislation is difficult. Use two examples to support your explanation.
A.…committee chairs come from the majority party and there are more members from the majority party on committees. The chair can decide to hold a vote on moving a piece of legislation to the next stage, and is usually successful since he has more members from his party on the committee. The majority party also has the Speaker, who chairs or appoints the chair of the Rules Committee, schedules legislation, oversees the rules for the legislation, and oversees the debate. In the Senate, the majority leader isn’t as powerful as the Speaker, but he can still bring legislation or a nomination up for a vote.
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There are many things that can stop legislation from passing. First, there is no guarantee of party loyalty. Every member of Congress has the goal of re-election. Even though they belong to a party, they will buck their party and President if support for the party/President hurts them in their district/State. This is especially true for members from “swing” districts/States and who represent districts/States that voted against the President. One defecting member of a party has the potential to slow the legislation…In the Senate…filibuster…requires 60 votes (cloture) to end debate.
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Assessment
Sometimes a bill may even be favored by most members but is opposed by the leadership or by a powerful committee chair. A bill that would pass if most members had an opportunity to pass could be killed by the Speaker or House Majority leader or a committee chair. These leaders could make sure the bill doesn’t even get a vote in committee. In the House the only way for this bill to see the light of day is through a discharge petition.
This happened in 2002 with the Mc Cain-Feingold Campaign Finance Act.
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