1. Chapter 8: Air Masses, Fronts, and Middle-Latitude Cyclones

2. Air Mass Source Regions
air mass: an extremely large body of air whose properties of temperature and humidity are fairly similar in any horizontal direction at any given altitude
source regions: regions dominated by surface high pressure over flat surface
Because air sinks in
high pressure systems,
air stays in contact with
the surface and acquires
its temperature and
moisture characteristics

3. Classification:
Temperature and humidity
Naming conventions
continental: ‘dry’, maritime: ‘moist’
Q: Since Arctic is a sea, why can we use the term ‘continental Arctic air mass’? A: because Arctic is covered by sea ice in winter.
Q: Why are midlatitudes not good source regions?

4. Q: which mP is warmer when reaching the U.S.?
a) from the Pacific, b) from the Atlantic, c) the same
Figure 8.2: Air mass source regions and their paths.

5. cP (Continental Polar) and cA (Continental Arctic) Air Masses
In the continental US, the coldest winter air is associated with cA air masses
(unfrozen) lake effect snows
Tmin in Dec 1990
At the downwind side of the lake, additional lifting is provided by low hills and the convergence of air as it slows down over the rough terrain .

6. Q: Can we have lake-effect snow if the lake is frozen? a) yes, b) no
Q: What is the lake-effect snow and what is the mechanism? A: Lake-effect snows are snowstorms that form on the downwind side of a large lake. Cold, dry air crossing a lake gains moisture and warmth from the water. As the more buoyant air rises, clouds forms that deposit snow on the lake's lee shore.
Q: Can we have lake-effect snow if the lake is frozen?
a) yes, b) no .

7. mP (Maritime polar) Air Masses
mP air often brings rain to
the west coast of the US.
Q: What are the small white clouds over the Pacific?
cirrocumulus, b) altocumulus, c) cumulus
Q: What are the symbols in California?
A: see Appendix C
Modification of mP air mass
by mountain ranges

8. Surface station

10. mT (Maritime Tropical Air Masses)
subtropical air
Bermuda high
mT air brings hot, muggy air to the eastern US in summer.
Max and Min T on April 17, 1976

11. mT (Maritime Tropical Air Masses)
The ‘pineapple express’ on January 1, 1997
Atmospheric River: caused flooding and extensive damage (~$1.5 billion)

12. cT (Continental Tropical Air Masses)
Northern Mexico
and southwestern U.S.
Summer
Max T in
22 July 2005

13. What types of air mass would be responsible for the weather
conditions listed below? choose the right answer:
a) cP, b) cT, c) mP, d) mT
Q1: hot, muggy summer in the Midwest and East d)
Q2: cool breeze after a summer hot spell on the Central Plains a)
Q3: persistent cold, damp weather along the east coast c)
Q4: drought with high temperature over the Great Plains b)
Q5: record-breaking low temperature over U.S.
Q6: cool weather with showers over the Pacific Northwest
Q7: daily afternoon thunderstorm along the Gulf Coast

14. Front
A transition zone between two air masses of different temperature and/or humidity. It represents low pressure area.
This terminology was developed by Norwegian meteorologists shortly after World War I.
cold front
warm front
stationary front
occluded front
dryline
Air masses:
mP, cP, mT

15. Stationary Fronts
Has essentially no movement, and wind is usually parallel with the stationary front
Large T and Td differences still exist
Light precipitation may or may not appear on the cold air side

16. Cold Fronts
cold front: temperature, humidity, wind direction differences
clouds and precipitation
vertical cross section:
slope of 1:50

17. Q: before the cold front approaches you, what do you see first?
a) high clouds, b) rain shower, c) thunderstorm
Q: Where is the surface minimum pressure located?
a) before cold front, b) in the cold front zone, c) behind cold front
Q: Where do you expect snowfall?

19. Warm Fronts overrunning: slope of 1:300
Temperature, humidity, and wind direction changes
T and Td differences not as large as
those for cold fronts
Cloud and precipitation changes
vertical cross section

21. Q: which front slope is more steep?
a) cold front, b) warm front
Q: where is the warm area with small cumulus clouds most probably located?
a) right behind a warm front, b) right behind a cold front
Q: If the wind is northerly behind a cold front, the wind direction ahead of the cold front can not be
a) westerly, b) southwesterly, c) easterly
Q: if the wind is southerly behind a warm front, the wind direction ahead of the warm front can not be
a) westerly, b) southeasterly, c) easterly

22. Dryline: primary difference in dew-point T

23. Occluded Fronts cold occlusion warm occlusion
Occluded fronts have characteristics of both warm and cold fronts.
After occlusion, the front would die out

24. Polar Front Theory Stationary front frontal wave open wave
mature cyclone
Q: for the left figure, what is the corresponding stage based on the above figure?

25. Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones (i.e., initial Low’s) Tend to Form?
Both Lows and Highs move
from west to east
Highs also from north to south
Lows also from south to north
Q: what is the reason for the Gulf of Alaska Low?
a) permanent Aleutian low;
b) water vapor from Pacific
Q: what do Alberta Clipper and Colorado Low have in common?
a) both are cold
b) both are on the leeside of Rockies

26. Northeasters (or nor’easters): develops or intensified off the
eastern seaboard of North
America then move
northeastward along the coast
(not unlike a tropical cyclone)
Q: what do the Gulf Low and Hatteras Low have in common?
a) both have strong ocean currents;
b) both are located between warm ocean and cold land
Figure 4: The surface weather map for 7:00 A.M. (EST) December 11, 1992, shows an intense low-pressure area (central pressure 988 mb, or in.), which is generating strong northeasterly winds and heavy precipitation (area shaded green) from the mid-Atlantic states into New England. This northeaster devastated a wide area of the eastern seaboard, causing damage in the hundreds of millions of dollars.

27. Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones and Anticyclones
convergence and divergence patterns aloft are extremely important to the development of mid-latitude cyclones
Q: Why would the surface low be weakened if the low aloft
is right above it? A: because convergence will bring air
molecules to the column and increase surface pressure

28. In the figure, there is a divergence aloft above surface Low pressure (and convergence); a convergence aloft above surface High; trough aloft is behind surface Low but ahead of surface High
Q: under what conditions
would surface Low be further
strengthened?
a) surface convergence is
stronger than divergence aloft
b) divergence aloft is stronger
than surface convergence

29. Jet Streams and Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones
jet stream (usually near tropopause of ~10 km)
jet streak: jet stream core with maximum wind
upper-air support

30. Figure 8.31: Summary of clouds, weather, and vertical motions and upper-air support associated with a developing mid-latitude cyclone.

31. Q: list four regions in North America where midlatitude cyclones tend to develop.
Q: For surface low to intensify, the upper level trough should be located: a) west of surface low, b) above surface low, c) east of surface low
Q: A mid-latitude cyclonic storm over eastern U.S. usually moves: a) northeastward, b) southeastward, c) southward
Q: in winter, which front produce more violent weather: a) stationary front, b) warm front, c) cold front
Q: describe the cloud change before passing, while passing, and after passing of a cold front.