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PENGENALAN KEPADA BIOSAINS (BAH 1)
NOOR SHAHRIMAN B KASIM
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KIMIA ASAS Atom • All chemical elements are atoms – Analogyall
atom of hydrogen, atom of carbon, etc. All atoms have similar structure people have similar body structure Atom
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Jenis-jenis Atom Number of Protons (atomic number) makes each
atom unique in its identity
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Atoms, nucleus, proton, neutron, electron, atomic number, valance
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Sebatian Organik Definasi
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. Methane is one of the simplest organic compounds
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Alcohol
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ALDEHIDA is an organosulfur compound that contains a carbon-bonded sulfhydryl. Aldehydes are highly reactive and participate in many reactions.[7]" From the industrial perspective, important reactions are condensations, e.g. to prepare plasticizers and polyols, and reduction to produce alcohols, especially "oxo-alcohols."
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Thiol an organosulfur compound that contains a carbon-bonded sulfhydryl (–C–SH or R–SH) group (where R represents an alkane, alkene, or other carbon-containing group of atoms). Thiols are the sulfur analogue of alcohols (that is, sulfur takes the place of oxygen in the hydroxyl group of an alcohol), and the word is a portmanteau of "thio" + "alcohol,“
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keton an organic compound with the structure RC(=O)R', where R and R' can be a variety of carbon-containing substituents. Ketones feature a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to two other carbon atoms Aceton
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ASID KARBOSILIK an organic acid characterized by the presence of at least one carboxyl group .
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MOLEKUL Pengertian Molekul: molekul adalah gabungan dua atom atau lebih baik dari unsur yang sama maupun dari unsur yang berbeza, jika atomnya berasal dari unsur yang sama disebut molekul unsur. jika atomnya berasal dari unsur yang berbeda disebut molekul senyawa. contoh molekul unsur, oksigen O2 ( ** diatomik terdiri dari 2 atom), ozon O3 (** poliatomik, lebih dari 2 atom) contoh molekul senyawa adalah karbon dioksida CO2 yang tersusun dari 2 unsur iaitu atom karbon dan atom oksigen
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Sebatian Inorganic Organic compounds are produced by living things. Inorganic compounds are produced by non-living natural processes or by human intervention in the laboratory. carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide , carbonates , cyanides, cyanates, carbides, and thyocyanates.
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Vitamin Vitamin Food source Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods Vitamin D (Calciferol) Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, eggs (Vitamin E) (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) liver, eggs, animal products Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Meat, whole grains, in many foods Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat, dairy products, eggs Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Meat, dairy products Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, eggs, grains Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Jenis-Jenis Vitamin Dan Fungsinya Pengertian Vitamin Vitamin adalah suatu zat senyawa kompleks yang sangat dibutuhkan oleh tubuh kita yang berfungsi untuk mambantu pengaturan atau proses kegiatan tubuh. Tanpa vitamin manusia, hewan dan makhluk hidup lainnya tidak akan dapat melakukan aktifitas hidup dan kekurangan vitamin dapat menyebabkan memperbesar peluang terkena penyakit pada tubuh kita. Vitamin berdasarkan kelarutannya di dalam air : - Vitamin yang larut di dalam air : Vitamin B dan Vitamin C - Vitamin yang tidak larut di dalam air : Vitamin A, D, E, dan K atau disingkat Vitamin ADEK. 1. Vitamin A - sumber vitamin A = susu, ikan, sayuran berwarna hijau dan kuning, hati, buah-buahan warna merah dan kuning (cabe merah, wortel, pisang, pepaya, dan lain-lain) - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin A = rabun senja, katarak, infeksi saluran pernapasan, menurunnya daya tahan tubuh, kulit yang tidak sehat, dan lain-lain. 2. Vitamin B1 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B1 = gandum, daging, susu, kacang hijau, ragi, beras, telur, dan sebagainya - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B1 = kulit kering/kusik/busik, kulit bersisik, daya tahan tubuh berkurang. 3. Vitamin B2 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B2 = sayur-sayuran segar, kacang kedelai, kuning telur, susu, dan banyak lagi lainnya. - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B2 = turunnya daya tahan tubuh, kilit kering bersisik, mulut kering, bibir pecah-pecah, sariawan, dan sebagainya. 4. Vitamin B3 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B3 = buah-buahan, gandum, ragi, hati, ikan, ginjal, kentang manis, daging unggas dan sebagainya - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B3 = terganggunya sistem pencernaan, otot mudah keram dan kejang, insomnia, bedan lemas, mudah muntah dan mual-mual, dan lain-lain 5. Vitamin B5 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B5 = daging, susu, sayur mayur hijau, ginjal, hati, kacang ijo, dan banyak lagi yang lain. - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B5 = otot mudah menjadi kram, sulit tidur, kulit pecah-pecah dan bersisik, dan lain-lain 6. Vitamin B6 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B6 = kacang-kacangan, jagung, beras, hati, ikan, beras tumbuk, ragi, daging, dan lain-lain. - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B6 = pelagra alias kulit pecah-pecah, keram pada otot, insomnia atau sulit tidur, dan banyak lagi lainnya. 7. Vitamin B12 - sumber yang mengandung vitamin B12 = telur, hati, daging, dan lainnya - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin B12 = kurang darah atau anemia, gampang capek/lelah/lesu/lemes/lemas, penyakit pada kulit, dan sebagainya 8. Vitamin C - sumber yang mengandung vitamin C = jambu klutuk atau jambu batu, jeruk, tomat, nanas, sayur segar, dan lain sebagainya - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin C = mudah infeksi pada luka, gusi berdarah, rasa nyeri pada persendian, dan lain-lain 9. Vitamin D - sumber yang mengandung vitamin D = minyak ikan, susu, telur, keju, dan lain-lain - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin D = gigi akan lebih mudah rusak, otok bisa mengalami kejang-kejang, pertumbuhan tulang tidak normal yang biasanya betis kaki akan membentuk huruf O atau X. 10. Vitamin E - sumber yang mengandung vitamin E = ikan, ayam, kuning telur, kecambah, ragi, minyak tumbuh-tumbuhan, havermut, dsb - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin E = bisa mandul baik pria maupun wanita, gangguan syaraf dan otot, dll 11. Vitamin K - sumber yang mengandung vitamin K = susu, kuning telur, sayuran segar, dkk - Penyakit yang ditimbulkan akibat kekurangan vitamin K = darah sulit membeku bila terluka/berdarah/luka/pendarahan, pendarahan di dalam tubuh, dan sebagainya
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Garam Mineral Garam mineral yang diperlukan banyak oleh tubuh ialah:
Kalsium (Ca) Fosforus (P) Kalium (K) Sulfur (S) Klorin (Cl) Natrium (Na) Magnesium (Mg) Garam mineral yang diperlukan sedikit ioleh tubuh ialah: Iodin (I) Ferum (Fe) Mangan (Mn) Fluorin (F) Kobalt (Co) Nikel (Ni) Zink (Zn) Kromium (Cr)
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JENIS FUNGSI Kalsium (Ca) 1) Membentuk kalsium fosfat
2) Membantu proses pembekuan darah. Fosforus (P) Menentukan kepekatan cecair dalam tubuh 2) Menyeimbangkan asid dan alkali untuk proses pencernaan 3) Membina plasma darah dan cecair limfa Kalium (K) 1) Menetapkan tekanan osmosis pada sel tisu 3) Sebagai bahan utama cecair tubuh untuk proses pengecutan otot Natrium (Na) 1) Menentukan kepekatan cecair dalam tubuh Magnesium (Mg) 1) Mengawal keregangan otot 2) Membantu kestabilan saraf 3) Membantu metabolisme tubuh 1. Kalsium Fungsi kalsium 99% kalsium terdapat pada tulang dan 1% pada tisu lembut. Kalsium dapat diserap dengan mudah dengan adanya kalsiferol. 1) Membentuk kalsium fosfat 4) Mengaktifkan enzim untuk metabolisme tubuh 3) Membantu fungsi otot dan saraf dengan betul 2) Membantu proses pembekuan darah Keperluan harian kalsium Kekurangan kalsium menyebabkan: Kekurangan kalsium Orang dewasa memerlukan kalsiu untuk mengawal fungsi tubuh, dan kanak-kanak memerlukannya untuk pertumbuhan. Pengambilan kalsium yang banyak semasa hamil dan semasa menyusukan penting supaya kalsium pada ibu tidak digunakan untuk pertumbuhan fetus. 1) Pembentukan tulang dan gigi kanak-kanak terganggu dan kekurangan yang serius menyebabakan riket 4) Otot dan saraf tidak dapat berfungsi dengan baik 3) Gigi tidak kukuh 2) Tulang lemah dan menyebabkan penyakit osteomalacia pada orang dewasa dan orang tua Kalsium akan mendak pada organ tertentu seperti ginjal yang boeh menyebabkan penyakit batu karang Berlebihan kalsium 78% fosforus terdapat pada tulang dan gigi dan 22% di dalam ceacair tubuh dan tisu lembut 2. Fosforus Fungsi fosforus 3) Membantu pengawalan cecair tubuh 2) Membantu tubuh mendapatkan tenaga 1) Membian tulang dan gigi bersama kalsium Keperluan harian fosforus Menyebabkan tulang dan gigi tidak kuat dan rapuh. Otot juga menjadi lemah. Kekurangan fosforus Ibu hamil dan menyusukan memerlukan fosforus yang banyak untuk keperluan harian 3. Natrium 1) Menentukan kepekatan cecair dalam tubuh Fungsi natrium Natrium didapati dalam bentuk sebatian iaitu natrium klorida atau garam biasa yang digunakan dalam masakan. Cecair tubuh mengandungi 0.9 % natrium. 3) Membina plasma darah dan cecair limfa 2) Menyeimbangkan asid dan alkali untuk proses pencernaan Keperluan natrium bergantung kepada jenis aktiviti tubuh. Semasa berpeluh, natrium dikumuhkan. Orang dewasa memerlukan 4 gram natrium sehari. Sekiranya berlebihan, natrium akan dibuang melalui proses perkumuhan. Keperluan harian natrium Kekurangan natrium 2) Tubuh menjadi lesu dan kurang selesa 1) Otot menjadi kejang Kekurangan natrium menyebabkan: Sel otot, rangka, dan sel darah merah mengandungi kalium yang berfungdi bersama natrium. 4. Kalium 1) Menetapkan tekanan osmosis pada sel tisu Fungsi kalium 3) Sebagai bahan utama cecair tubuh untuk proses pengecutan otot Keperluan orang dewasa ialah 2.5 gram kalium sehari Keperluan harian kalium Kekurangan kalium menyebabkan: Kekurangan kalium 2) Tubuh menjadi lemah dan lesu 1) Sel tidak berfungsi dengan betul 5. Magnesium Magnesium terdapat pada tulang dan tisu. Keperluan orang dewasa ialah antara 300 – 350 miligram sehari. 1) Mengawal keregangan otot Fungsi magnesium 2) Membantu kestabilan saraf Kekurangan magnesium menyebabkan: Kekurangan magnesium 3) Membantu metabolisme tubuh 2) Radang saraf 1) Pengawalan pergerakan otot terganggu
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1) Pertumbuhan kanak-kanak dan remaja 2) Kesihatan orang dewasa
JENIS FUNGSI Iodin (I) 1) Pertumbuhan kanak-kanak dan remaja 2) Kesihatan orang dewasa 3) Metabolisme tubuh Ferum (Fe) 1) Pembentukan hemoglobin terganggu, mengakibatkan anemia 2) Letih, pening, dan sesak nafas kerana oksigen tidak dapat dihantar ke seluruh tubuh Fluorin (F) Fluorin menjadi bahan penting untuk memelihara enamel gigi dan tulang 6. Iodin Iodin diperlukan sebanyak 0.05 – 0.30 miligram dalam diet individu dewasa. Jumlah iodin dalam tubuh ialah 20 miligram – 50 miligram dan 1/3 daripadanya terdapat dalam kelenjar tiroid Fungsi iodin 1) Pertumbuhan kanak-kanak dan remaja 2) Kesihatan orang dewasa 3) Metabolisme tubuh Keperluan harian iodin Individu dewasa memerlukan 0.05 – 0.30 miligram iodin sehari. Kanak-kanak, ibu hamil dan ibu menyusukan pula memerlukan lebih iodin. Kekurangan iodin Kekurangan iodin menyebabkan: 1) Goiter iaitu apabila kelenjar tiroid di leher membengkak 2) Pertumbuhan tubuh terbantut (kretinisme) 3) Daya pemikiran tidak sempurna 7. Ferum Ferum penting kerana 2/3 daripadanya digunakan untuk membentuk hemoglobin Fungsi ferum 1) Menjadi komponen hemoglobin yang memberi warna merah pada darah 2) Membawa oksigen dalam tisu darah ke seluruh tisu tubuh 3) Membantu pembentukan protein mioglobin dalam sel otot 4) Membantu respirasi sel 5) Membantu pengoksidaan karbohidrat, lemak, dan protein Keperluan harian ferum Keperluan ferum bergantung kepada jantina dan peringkat umur. Wanita dewasa memerlukan lebih banyak ferum kerana mereka kehilangan ferum semasa haid. Ibu yang melahirkan anak memerlukan lebih banyak ferum dibandingkan dengan wanita dewasa. Kekurangan ferum Kekurangan ferum menyebabkan: 1) Pembentukan hemoglobin terganggu, mengakibatkan anemia 2) Letih, pening, dan sesak nafas kerana oksigen tidak dapat dihantar ke seluruh tubuh Berlebihan ferum Keracunan boleh berlaku jika ferum dalam tubuh berlebihan. Biasanya hanya sedikit ferum diserap ke usus kecil 8. Fluorin Fluorin diserap ke dalam tisu tubuh. Fluorin disimpan dalam tulang, gigi, kelenjar tiroid dan di kulit Fungsi fluorin Fluorin menjadi bahan penting untuk memelihara enamel gigi dan tulang Keperluan harian fluorin Orang dewasa memerlukan 1 miligram – 2 miligram fluorin sehari dan air minuman yang mengandungi fluorin adalah mencukupi untuk keperluan tubuh. Kekurangan fluorin Kerosakan gigi akan berlaku apabila terjadinya kekurangan fluorin dalam tubuh seseorang
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ION an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created by both chemical and physical means. In chemical terms, if a neutral atom loses one or more electrons, it has a net positive charge and is known as an cation. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net negative charge and is known as an anion. An ion consisting of a single atom is an atomic or monatomic ion; if it consists of two or more atoms, it is a molecular or polyatomic ion. electron (symbol: e−) is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. An anion (−) (pron.: /ˈæn.aɪ.ən/ AN-eye-ən), from the Greek word ἄνω (ánō), meaning "up", is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). A cation (+) (pron.: /ˈkæt.aɪ.ən/ KAT-eye-ən), from the Greek word κατά (katá), meaning "down", is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge.
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Aluminium Al3+ Calcium Ca2+ Copper(II) Cu2+ cupric Hydrogen H+
Common Cations Common Name Formula Historic Name Simple Cations Aluminium Al3+ Calcium Ca2+ Copper(II) Cu2+ cupric Hydrogen H+ Iron(II) Fe2+ ferrous Iron(III) Fe3+ ferric Magnesium Mg2+ Mercury(II) Hg2+ mercuric Potassium K+ kalic Silver Ag+ Sodium Na+ natric Common Anions Formal Name Formula Alt. Name Simple Anions Chloride Cl− Fluoride F− Bromide Br− Oxide O2− Formation of monatomic ions Monatomic ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons to the valence shell (the outer-most electron shell) in an atom. The inner shells of an atom are filled with electrons that are tightly bound to the positively charged atomic nucleus, and so do not participate in this kind of chemical interaction. The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule is called ionization. Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation, but the more usual process of ionization encountered in chemistry is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. This transfer is usually driven by the attaining of stable ("closed shell") electronic configurations. Atoms will gain or lose electrons depending on which action takes the least energy. For example, a sodium atom, Na, has a single electron in its valence shell, surrounding 2 stable, filled inner shells of 2 and 8 electrons. Since these filled shells are very stable, a sodium atom tends to lose its extra electron and attain this stable configuration, becoming a sodium cation in the process Na → Na+ + e− On the other hand, a chlorine atom, Cl, has 7 electrons in its valence shell, which is one short of the stable, filled shell with 8 electrons. Thus, a chlorine atom tends to gain an extra electron and attain a stable 8-electron configuration, becoming a chloride anion in the process: Cl + e− → Cl− This driving force is what causes sodium and chlorine to undergo a chemical reaction, wherein the "extra" electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine, forming sodium cations and chloride anions. Being oppositely charged, these cations and anions form ionic bonds and combine to form sodium chloride, NaCl, more commonly known as rock salt. Na+ + Cl− → NaCl Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions An electrostatic potential map of thenitrate ion (NO− 3). The 3-dimensional shell represents a single arbitraryisopotential. Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the gaining or losing of elemental ions such as H+ in neutral molecules. For example, when ammonia, NH3, accepts a proton, H+, it forms the ammonium ion, NH+ 4. Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration, but ammonium has an extra proton that gives it a net positive charge. Ammonia can also lose an electron to gain a positive charge, forming the ion ·NH+ 3. However, this ion is unstable, because it has an incomplete valence shell around the nitrogen atom, making it a very reactive radical ion. Due to the instability of radical ions, polyatomic and molecular ions are usually formed by gaining or losing elemental ions such as H+, rather than gaining or losing electrons. This allows the molecule to preserve its stable electronic configuration while acquiring an electrical charge. Ionization potential Main article: Ionization potential The energy required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the ionization potential, orionization energy. The nth ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its nth electron after the first n − 1 electrons have already been detached. Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of atomic orbitals is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, sodium has one valence electron in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na+. On the other side of the periodic table, chlorine has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl−. Caesium has the lowest measured ionization energy of all the elements and helium has the greatest.[5] In general, the ionization energy of metals is much lower than the ionization energy of nonmetals, which is why, in general, metals will lose electrons to form positively charged ions and nonmetals will gain electrons to form negatively charged ions.
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Anions from Organic Acids
Oxoanions Carbonate CO2− 3 Hydrogen carbonate HCO− 3 bicarbona te Hydroxid e OH− Nitrate NO− 3 Phosphate PO3− 4 Sulfate SO2− 4 Anions from Organic Acids Acetate CH3COO − ethanoate Formate HCOO− methanoat e Oxalate C2O2− 4 ethandioat e Cyanide CN− Polyatomic Cations Ammonium NH+ 4 Hydronium H3O+ Mercury(I) Hg2+ 2 mercurous Ionic bonding Main article: Ionic bond Ionic bonding is a kind of chemical bonding that arises from the mutual attraction of oppositely charged ions. Ions of like charge repel each other, and ions of opposite charge attract each other. Therefore ions do not usually exist on their own, but will bind with ions of opposite charge to form a crystal lattice. The resulting compound is called an ionic compound, and is said to be held together by ionic bonding. In ionic compounds there arise characteristic distances between ion neighbors from which the spatial extension and the ionic radius of individual ions may be derived. The most common type of ionic bonding is seen in compounds of metals and nonmetals (except noble gases, which rarely form chemical compounds). Metals are characterized by having a small number of electrons in excess of a stable, closed-shell electronic configuration. As such, they have the tendency to lose these extra electrons in order to attain a stable configuration. This property is known aselectropositivity. Non-metals, on the other hand, are characterized by having an electron configuration just a few electrons short of a stable configuration. As such, they have the tendency to gain more electrons in order to achieve a stable configuration. This tendency is known as electronegativity. When a highly electropositive metal is combined with a highly electronegative nonmetal, the extra electrons from the metal atoms are transferred to the electron-deficient nonmetal atoms. This reaction produces metal cations and nonmetal anions, which are attracted to each other to form a salt.
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TERMINOLOGI Lisis (Lysis)
refers to the breaking down of a cell, often by viral, enzymic, or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a "lysate". hidrasi (Hydrasi) term used to indicate that a substance contains water Dehidrasi (Dehydration) defined as the excessive loss of body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes Hidrolisis (Hydrolysis) usually means the cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Generally, hydrolysis or sacchyrification is a step in the degradation of a substance Oksidasi (Oxidation) Sodium and fluorine bonding ionically to form sodium fluoride. Deaminasi the removal of an amine group from a molecule. penurunan Hydration may refer to: Hydrate, a term used to indicate that a substance contains water Hydrational fluid, a liquid substance that supplies the body with water Hydration enthalpy, energy released from water reactions Hydration reaction, a chemical addition reaction where a hydroxyl group and proton are added to a compound Hydration shell, a type of solvation shell Hydration system, an apparatus that helps its user drink enough liquid while engaged in physical activity Hydration pack, a type of hydration system composed of a carry-on pack used for hydration Mineral hydration, an inorganic chemical reaction where water is added to the crystal structure of a mineral Oral rehydration therapy, hydration as a health treatment Rehydration, health concern in the management of dehydration Tissue hydration, the supply and retention of adequate water in biological tissues Water of hydration, water that occurs within crystals
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oxidation Sodium and fluorine bonding ionically to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically. The oppositely charged ions are then attracted to each other. The fluorine undergoes reduction, and sodium undergoes oxidation.
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TERIMA KASIH
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