1. Chapter 2: Measurements and Calculations
Section 3: Using Scientific Measurements

2. Lesson Starter
Look at the specifications for electronic balances. How do the instruments vary in precision?

3. Lesson Starter
Discuss using a beaker to measure volume versus using a graduated cylinder. Which is more precise?

4. Objectives Distinguish between accuracy and precision.
Determine the number of significant figures in measurements.
Perform mathematical operations involving significant figures.
Convert measurements into scientific notation.
Distinguish between inversely and directly proportional relationships.

5. Accuracy and Precision
ACCURACY refers to the CLOSENESS OF MEASUREMENTS to the correct or ACCEPTED VALUE of the quantity measured.
PRECISION refers to the CLOSENESS OF A SET OF MEASUREMENTS of the same quantity made in the same way.

6. Accuracy and Precision
Darts clustered within a small area but far from the bull’s-eye mean low accuracy and high precision.
Darts within the bull’s-eye mean high accuracy and high precision.
Darts scattered around the target and far from the bull’s-eye mean low accuracy and low precision.

7. Percentage Error
Percentage error is calculated by subtracting the accepted value from the experimental value, dividing the difference by the accepted value, and then multiplying by 100.

8. Percentage Error Problems
Sample Problem C
A student measures the mass and volume of a substance and calculates its density as1.40 g/mL. The correct, or accepted, value of the density is g/mL. What is the percentage error of the student’s measurement?

9. Practice C:
1. What is the percentage error for a mass measurement of 17.7 g, given that the correct value is 21.2 g?
2. A volume is measured experimentally as 4.26 mL. What is the percentage error, given that the correct value is 4.15 mL?

10. Error in Measurement
Some error or uncertainty always exists in any measurement.
SKILL of the measurer
CONDITIONS of the measurement
measuring INSTRUMENTS

11. Significant Figures
Significant figures in a measurement consist of all the DIGITS KNOWN WITH CERTAINTY plus ONE FINAL DIGIT, which is somewhat UNCERTAIN or is ESTIMATED.
The term significant DOES NOT mean certain.

12. Rules for Counting Sig Figs
ALL NONZERO digits are significant.
22.5 has THREE significant figures
72.94 has FOUR significant figures
ZEROS APPEARING BETWEEN NONZERO DIGITS are significant.
40.7 has THREE significant figures
km has FIVE significant figures

13. Rules for Counting Sig Figs
Zeros appearing IN FRONT of all nonzero digits are NOT SIGNIFICANT.
has FIVE significant figures
kg has ONE significant figure
ZEROS AT THE END of a number are significant if a DECIMAL POINT is visible.
75.00 g has FOUR significant figures
mm has TEN significant figures
2000 m has 1 significant figure
2000. m has FOUR significant figures

14. Counting Sig Figs: Practice
Sample Problem D
How many significant figures are in each of the following measurements?
28.6 g
3440. cm
910 m L kg

15. Practice D
1. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following: g km
1002 m
400 mL cm kg
2. Suppose the value “seven thousand centimeters” is reported to you. How should the number be expressed if it is intended to contain the following?
1 significant figure
4 significant figures
6 significant figures

16. Rounding If the digit following the last digit to be retained is:
Then the last digit should:
Example (rounded to three significant figures)
Greater than 5
Be increased by 1
42.68  42.7
Less than 5
Stay the same
17.32 m  17.3 m
5, followed by nonzero digits
cm  2.79 cm
Exactly 5 or 5 followed by only zeros, preceded by an odd
4.635 kg  4.64 kg (because 3 is odd)
Exactly 5 or 5 followed by only zeros, preceded by an even
Stays the same
78.65 mL  78.6 mL (because 6 is even)

17. Addition or Subtraction with Sig Figs
When adding or subtracting decimals, the answer must have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as there are in the measurement having the fewest digits to the right of the decimal point.

18. Multiplication or Division with Sig Figs
For multiplication or division, the answer can have no more significant figures than are in the measurement with the fewest number of significant figures.

19. Math with Sig Figs: Practice
Sample Problem E
Carry out the following calculations. Express each answer to the correct number of significant figures.
5.44 m – m
2.4 g/mL x mL

20. Practice E
1. What is the sum of g and g?
2. Calculate the quantity 87.3 cm – cm.
3. Calculate the area of a rectangular crystal surface that measures 1.34um by um. (Hint: Recall that area = length x width and is measured in square units.)
4. Polycarbonate plastic has a density of 1.2 g/cm3. A photo frame is constructed from two 3.0 mm sheets of polycarbonate. Each sheet measures 28 cm by 22 cm. What is the mass of the photo frame?

21. Conversion Factors and Sig Figs
There is no uncertainty in exact conversion factors.
Most exact conversion factors are defined quantities

22. Scientific Notation
In scientific notation, numbers are written in the form M x 10n, where the factor M is a number greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a whole number.
example: mm = 1.2 x 10-4 mm
Move the decimal point four places to the right and multiply the number by 10-4

23. Scientific Notation
Determine M by moving the decimal point in the original number to the left or the right so that only one nonzero DIGIT remains to the LEFT of the DECIMAL point.
Determine n by counting the NUMBER OF PLACES that you MOVED THE DECIMAL point. If the ORIGINAL NUMBER is GREATER THAN 1, n is POSITIVE. If the original number is a DECIMAL number SMALLER THAN 1, n is NEGATIVE.

24. Math Using Scientific Notation
1.Addition and subtraction – These operations can be performed only if the values have the same exponent (n factor)
a. example: 4.2 x 104 kg x 103 kg or
4.2 x 104 kg x 104 kg
4.99 x 104 kg
To the correct number of significant figures, x 104 kg

25. Math Using Scientific Notation
2. Multiplication – The M factors are multiplied, and the exponents are added algebraically.
a. example: (5.23 x 106 um)(7.1 x 10-2 um) = (5.23 x 7.1)(106 x 10-2)
= x 104 um2
= 3.7 x 105 um2

26. Math Using Scientific Notation
3. Division – The M factors are divided, and the exponent of the denominator is subtracted from that of the numerator.
a. example: x 107 g
8.1 x 104 mol
(5.44  8.1) (107-4)
= x 103
=6.7 x 102 g/mol

27. Using Sample Problems ANALYZE PLAN COMPUTE
The first step in solving a quantitative word problem is to read the problem carefully at least twice and to analyze the information in it.
PLAN
The second step is to develop a plan for solving the problem.
COMPUTE
The third step involves substituting the data and necessary conversion factors into the plan you have developed.

28. Using Sample Problems EVALUATE
Examine your answer to determine whether it is reasonable.
Check to see that the units are correct.
Make an estimate of the expected answer.
Check the order of magnitude in your answer.
Be sure that the answer given for any problem is expressed using the correct number of significant figures.

29. Sample Problem F
Calculate the volume of a sample of aluminum that has a mass of kg. The density of aluminum is g/cm3.

30. Sample Problem F Solution
Analyze
Given: mass = kg, density = 2.70 g/cm3
Unknown: volume of aluminum
Plan
The density unit is g/cm3, and the mass unit is kg.
conversion factor: 1000 g = 1 kg
Rearrange the density equation to solve for volume.
D = m/V V = m/D

31. Sample Problem F V = m/D = 3.057 kg(1000 g/kg)/2.70 g/cm3
Compute
V = m/D = kg(1000 g/kg)/2.70 g/cm3
V = …cm3 (calculator answer)
round to three significant figures
V = 1.13 x 103 cm3
Evaluate
Answer: V = 1.13 x 103 cm3
The unit of volume, cm3, is correct.
An order of magnitude estimate would put the answer at over 1000 cm3.
(3/2) x 1000
The correct number of significant figures is three, which matches that in g/cm3

32. Practice F:
1. What is the volume, in milliliters, of a sample of helium that has a mass of x 10-3g, given that the density is g/L?
2. What is the density of a piece of metal that has a mass of 6.25 x 105 g and is 92.5 cm x 47.3 cm x 85.4 cm?
3. How many millimeters are there in 5.12 x 105 kilometers?
4. A clock gains second per minute. How many seconds will the clock gain exactly six months, assuming exactly 30 days per month?

33. Direct Proportions
Two quantities are DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to each other if DIVIDING one by the other gives a CONSTANT value.
y  x when Y/X = K
read as “y is proportional to x”
Two quantities are proportional to one another if, when graphed, the result is a STRAIGHT LINE.

34. Direct Proportion Graph

35. Inverse Proportions
Two quantities are INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to each other if their PRODUCT is constant.
y  1/x when XY = K
read as “y is proportional to 1 divided by x”
The resulting graph is a HYPERBOLA.

36. Inverse Proportion Graph